12. Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)

Growth of Militant Nationalism

Militant Nationalism

• Emerged 1890s, solidified by 1905 with revolutionary wing
• Catalysts: British intransigence, economic exploitation, repressive legislation
• Government taking rights away instead of granting more
  • 1892: Indian Councils Act criticized for failing to satisfy nationalists
  • 1897: Natu brothers deported without trial, Tilak imprisoned
  • 1898: Repressive laws under IPC Section 124A, 156A amplified
  • 1899: Indian members in Calcutta Corporation reduced
  • 1904
    • Official Secrets Act curbed press freedom
    • Indian Universities Act increased government control over universities
• Famines (1896-1900) killed 90 lakh people, exposed colonial exploitation

Ideological Foundations

• Self-reliance philosophy from Tilak, Aurobindo, Pal
• Education spread awareness while creating educated unemployed class which drew attention to poverty and underdeveloped state of the country's economy
• International examples
  • Japan's rise (1868: Meiji Restoration, 1905: Victory over Russia)
  • European military defeats (1896: Ethiopians over Italian Army, 1899-1902: Boers Wars)
• Reaction against westernisation led by Indian intellectuals
• Dissatisfaction with moderate "Three P's" approach → Prayer, Petition, Protest

Militant School

• Leaders (Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh) across regions united in approach
• Core principles
  • Self-reliance
  • Swaraj
  • Direct action
  • Mass participation
• Curzon's policies (especially Bengal partition) confirmed British hostility
• New leadership channeled mass potential against colonial rule

Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

• Dec 1903: Originated from anti-partition movement against British decision to divide Bengal (July 1905: Actual Division)
• Western Bengal (Hindu majority) → Calcutta capital
• Eastern Bengal (Muslim majority) → Dacca capital
• British motive: Weaken Bengali nationalism by dividing population by language and religion
• Curzon promoted Dacca to appease Muslims, continuing divide-and-rule policy

Movement Development (1903-1905)

• Moderate leaders (Banerjee, Mitra, Ray) used petitions, meetings, newspapers for protest
• 1905

  • 7 August

    • Boycott Resolution passed at Calcutta Townhall
    • Formation Proclamation of Swadeshi Movement made
    • Boycott of Manchester cloth + Liverpool salt

  • October

    • Partition implemented; public observed mourning, sang Bande Mataram + Amar Sonar Bangla
    • Rakhibandhan day celebrated as unity symbol
• Movement raised ₹50,000
• Spread to
  • Poona, Bombay: Tilak
  • Punjab: Lala Lajpat Rai
  • Delhi: Syed Haider Raza
  • Madras: Chidambaram Pillai

Congress Response

• 1905: Congress under Gokhale supported anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement
• Militants (Tilak, Rai, Pal, Ghosh) advocated nationwide mass struggle for swaraj
• 1906: Congress under Prominent Men#Dadabhai Naroji declared self-government / swaraj goal (like colonies of Australia and Canada)
• 1907: Moderates-Extremists split at Surat session over movement tactics

Movement under Extremist Leadership

• Extremists dominated Swadeshi Movement after Moderate failure
• Government suppression: student atrocities, banned Vande Mataram, restricted meetings

Extremist Programme (1906)

• Naoroji declared self-government as goal (Congress 1906 session at Calcutta)
• Passive resistance beyond swadeshi → boycott government institutions
• Purpose: paralyse British administration through organized refusal
• Aurobindo: "Political freedom is the life breath of a nation"

Struggle Methods

• Boycott: foreign goods, public burnings, salt/sugar boycott
• Mass mobilization
  • Public meetings
  • Volunteer corps
  • Samitis
    • Swadesh Bandhab Samiti: Ashwini Kumar Dutta
    • Swadeshi Sangam: V.O. Chidambaram Pillai
• Cultural tools: traditional festivals (Tilak's Ganpati and Shivaji festivals), nationalist songs/art
• Self-reliance (atma shakti): village regeneration, social reform (against caste oppression, early marriage, dowry system)
• Education: national schools established, vernacular medium
• Swadeshi enterprises: textile mills, factories, banks

Swadeshi National Education Movement

• British suppression triggered boycott of colonial educational institutions
• Raja Subodh Mullick donated ₹100,000 for national schools
• 1906: National Council of Education established Bengal National College and Bengal Technical Institute
• Bengal National College
  • Principal: Aurobindo Ghosh
  • President: Rashbehari Ghosh
• Education delivered through vernacular medium

Swadeshi Enterprises

• 1893: Bengal Chemicals established by Prafullachandra Ray
• 1897: Dawn: Satishchandra Mukherjee's: Promoted self-reliance #Ind_Publications
• 1904: Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar's banned book Chapter 12 - 17#^Desher-Katha sold 15,000 copies
• Indigenous businesses established: textile mills, factories, banks
• Enterprises driven by patriotism rather than business expertise
• V.O. Chidambaram Pillai's Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at Tuticorin TN challenged British monopoly

Cultural Renaissance

• Tagore's Amar Sonar Bangla (later Bangladesh national anthem) Subramania Bharati's Sudesha Geetham inspired nationalist movement
• 1907: Indian Society of Oriental Art established by Abanindra Nath Tagore, revolutionised Indian art beyond Victorian influences →16. Indian Paintings#^Nandlal-Bose
• Indian scientists (Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafullachandra Roy) pioneered original research with global impact

Mass Participation

• Students led swadeshi promotion, shop picketing; faced severe penalties
• Movement strong in Bengal, Maharashtra, South India
• Women, especially urban middle-class, joined protests, gained significant role
• Muslims divided: some leaders participated (Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, Guzanvi, Maulana Azad) while majority stayed away (led by Nawab Salimullah who supported partition for Muslim-majority East Bengal)
• 1906: All-India Muslim League formed as anti-Congress front
• Labor strikes (1905-1908): Bengali clerks, railway workers, jute mills protested
• Movement expanded to diverse social groups but failed with Muslim peasantry

Annulment of Partition

• 1911
  • Delhi Durbar under Viceroy Hardinge II
  • Bengal partition annulled
  • Capital shifted to Delhi
  • Bihar and Orissa separated from Bengal, Assam made separate province
  • Attempt to bomb Lord Hardinge was after Delhi Durbar → Chapter 12 - 17#^Delhi-Conspiracy-Trial

Evaluation of Swadeshi Movement

Movement fizzles out

• 1908: Movement fizzled out
• Decline factors
  • Government repression
  • Organisational failure
  • Leadership arrests / Deportation; Aurobindo Ghosh + Bipin Chandra Pal retired from active politics
  • Internal conflicts; Surat Split etc
  • Limited class reach
  • Theoretical resistance

Movement a Turning Point

• Historical significance
  • Turning point expanding beyond politics to culture/industry
  • Awakened political consciousness
  • Undermined colonial ideas
• Ideological transition
  • Moderate petition politics (failed to connect with younger generation and masses) → Extremist mass mobilization (emphasized mass participation and broader social base)
  • Extremist ideology lacked consistency (Aurobindo - Complete Independence, Tilak - Some sort of self govt)
  • Religious revivalism alienated Muslims and created unhealthy politics-religion relationship

Moderates vs Extremists

Surat Split 1907

• The Surat Split (1907)
  • Congress divided during revolutionary momentum period
  • Stemmed from ideological differences between Moderates and Extremists
• Ideological Divide (1905-1907)
  • Extremists: Expanded boycott beyond Bengal, aggressive resistance, Tilak/Lajpat Rai leadership
  • Moderates: Constitutional methods, limited boycott, council reforms participation
  • 1906 Calcutta compromise: Naoroji presidency, swarajya goal established (Swaraj mentioned first time)

Split Takes Place

• Extremists wanted Nagpur session with Tilak as president
• Moderates moved meeting to Surat, proposed Rashbehari Ghosh as President, dropped key resolutions (Ultimately Rashbehari Ghosh was chosen as President)
• Both sides adopted rigid positions making compromise impossible
• Moderates retained control of Congress organization

Government Response

• Five repressive laws (1907-1911) targeting anti-government activity
  • Seditious Meetings Act, Indian Newspapers Act, Incitement to Offences Act, Criminal Law Amendment Act, Indian Press Act
• Kesari: Tilak: Imprisoned (1909-1914) for sedition (for writings in it #Ind_Publications
• Key Extremist leaders (Aurobindo Ghosh, BC Pal retired, Lajpat Rai left abroad) sidelined through retirement or exile
• Extremists failed to organize alternative party, Moderates left without popular support
• National movement declined until Tilak's 1914 release

The Government Strategy

• Hostile to Congress despite Moderates distancing from militants
• Implemented carrot and stick policy after Swadeshi Movement
• Three-pronged approach: repression-conciliation-suppression
  • First stage: Extremists repressed to frighten Moderates
  • Second stage: Moderates placated through concessions
  • Strategy aimed to isolate Extremists while bringing Moderates to government side

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

• 1906
  • Simla Deputation demanded Muslim separate electorates
  • Prominent Men#Gopal Krishna Gokhale presented Congress demands

Morley Minto Reforms

• Viceroy Minto and Morley created reforms to placate Moderates and Muslims
• Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley Minto Reforms) established:
  • Representation Structure
    • Separate electorates for Muslims with excess representation (first time)
    • Imperial Legislative Council: 69 members (37 officials, 32 non-officials)
    • Provincial councils given non-official majority (though non-elected majority remained)
    • One Indian appointed to Viceroy's executive council (Satyendra Sinha, 1909)
  • Electoral System
    • Indirect elections (Local bodies $\stackrel{\text{elect}}{\to }$ Electoral College $\stackrel{\text{elect}}{\to }$ Provincial Legislature members $\stackrel{\text{elect}}{\to }$ Central Legislature members)
    • Muslim voters given lower income qualification than Hindus
    • Reserved seats: 8 for Muslims, 4 for British capitalists, 2 for landlords, 13 general
  • Powers and Limitations
    • Legislative powers expanded at central and provincial levels
    • Could pass resolutions, ask questions, vote on budget items
    • Budget as whole could not be voted upon
    • No parliamentary responsibility despite parliamentary forms

Critical Evaluation

• Political Intent
  • Aimed to divide nationalists through separate electorates
  • Strategy to rally Moderates and Muslims against rising nationalism
  • Morley explicitly rejected self-government and parliamentary system
• Structural Flaws
  • Introduced parliamentary forms without responsibility
  • Election system too indirect (infiltration through sieves)
  • Created political barriers between communities
• Contemporary Views`
  • Morley: "If reforms led to parliamentary system, I would have nothing to do with it"
  • Nehru: Reforms reversed unification process, corrupted political structure
  • Montford Report: "Reforms afforded no answer to Indian problems"
  • System characterized as benevolent despotism rather than true representation

13. First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907 - 1917)

Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities

• Revolutionary heroism: byproduct of militant nationalism
• Two phases
  1. Swadeshi/Boycott Movement (until 1917)
  2. After fallout of Non-Cooperation Movement
• Youth continued revolutionary activities after leadership failure

Revolutionary Programme

• Adopted individual heroic actions following Russian/Irish models
• Methods: assassinations, revolutionary training, fundraising dacoities, military conspiracies
• Goals: terrorize rulers, remove authority fear, inspire patriotic youth
• Extremist leaders failed to counter individualistic violent approach
• Did not distinguish between mass revolution and individual violent acts

A Survey of Revolutionary Activities

Bengal

• 1870s: Inactive secret societies

• 1902: First revolutionary groups formed in Midnapore (Jnanendranath Basu) and Calcutta (Anushilan Samiti by Promotha Mitter)

• 1906: Chapter 12 - 17#^Jugantar-Patrika established

• 1907

  • Yugantar group attempted to assassinate Lt. Governor Sir Andrew Fuller
  • Attempts to derail Lt. Governor Fraser's train

• Alipore Conspiracy Case

  • 1908: Kingsford bombing killed unintended British women
  • British linked bomb to Anushilan members
  • Alipore conspiracy case prosecuted Anushilan members
  • Aurobindo Ghosh acquitted
  • Barindra Ghosh (Head of secret society of revolutionaries) + Ullaskar Dutt (maker of bombs) → given death penalty → later commuted

• 1908: Dacca Anushilan conducted Barrah dacoity for revolutionary funds

• 1909-1910: Assassinations of public prosecutor and deputy superintendent

• Delhi Conspiracy Trial

  • 1912: Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal attempted to bomb Viceroy Hardinge
  • Baswant Kumar Biswas, Amir Chand, Avadh Behari → executed
  • Rashbehari Bose → escaped to Japan (1915), later formed INA

• German Plot / Zimmerman Plan

  • WWI: Revolutionaries planned all-India insurrection with German arms
  • Bagha Jatin led Bengal, Rashbehari Bose assigned Upper India
  • Funded through dacoities, aimed for Fort William seizure and military mutiny
  • Plot leaked to police, revolutionaries intercepted at Balasore
  • September 1915: Bagha Jatin killed in gunfight, conspiracy collapsed

• Sandhya, Yugantar (Bengal), Kal (Maharashtra): Revolutionary newspapers #Ind_Publications

• Legacy: Most substantial outcome of swadeshi Bengal, influenced educated youth

• Limitations: Hindu religious emphasis alienated Muslims, narrow upper-caste base, quixotic heroism (pursuit of noble but impractical or unrealistic ideals)

Anushilan Samiti

• 1902: Three societies were working to overthrow British

  1. Pramathanath Mitra (also known as Promotha Mitter) and Satish Chandra Bose
  2. Sarala Devi
  3. Prominent Men#Aurobindo Ghose

• Name derived from Prominent Men#^Anushilan-Tattva by Prominent Men#Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

• 📌 Jugantar Patrika #Ind_Publications

  • Wikipedia
  • 1906: Founded
  • Served as propaganda organ for Anushilan Samiti
  • & Advocated violence against police brutalities (Force must be stopped by force)
  • Jugantar group: Western wing of the Anushilan Samiti came to known so because of this publication

Punjab

• Extremism driven by famines, high taxes, forced labor (begar)
• Punjabee: Lala Lajpat Rai: Focused on self help #Ind_Publications

• 1907: Government banned political meetings, deported Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh → Punjab Extremism died down

Maharashtra

• 1879: Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Phadke → armed revolt against British rule by disruption communication lines → suppressed permanently

• 1890s: Tilak promoted militant nationalism via festivals and journals Kesari/Maharatta #Ind_Publications

• 1897: Chapelkar brothers assassinated Plague Commissioner of Poona Rand and Lt. Ayerst

• 1904: Savarkar's founded Abhinav Bharat

  • With brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar
  • Initially known as Mitra Mela
  • Renamed as Abhinav Bharat inspired by Mazzini's Young Italy (Abhinav means new, fresh, modern)

• Nasik/Poona/Bombay became bomb manufacturing centers

• 1909

  • Jackson (Nasik Collector) killed by Kanhare of Abhinav Bharat
  • Savarkar identified as conspiracy leader, sentenced to transportation for life

Revolutionary Activities Abroad

• Indian revolutionaries sought shelter abroad to publish literature immune from Press Acts
• 1905
  • Shyamji Krishnavarma
    • Established Indian Home Rule Society (India House) in London
    • The Indian Sociologist: Shyamji Krishnavarma #Ind_Publications
  • Savarkar and Hardayal joined India House
• 1909: Madanlal Dhingra assassinated Curzon-Wyllie

• Revolutionary centers emerged in Paris, Geneva (Bhikaji Cama), Berlin (Virendranath Chattopadhyaya)

Ghadar Party

• Founding members
  • Lots of names on Wikipedia
  • President: Sohan Singh Bhakna
  • Udham Singh
• Precursor: Swadesh Sevak Home at Vancouver, United India House at Seattle
• 1913: Ghadar Party formed in San Francisco with ex-Punjab soldiers/peasants who migrated to North America
• Ghadar program: assassinate officials, publish revolutionary literature, organize revolts in British colonies
• 1914: Komagata Maru incident (370 immigrants denied entry to Canada) inflamed Punjab situation
• 1915
  • February: Planned armed revolt in Punjab garrisons foiled; 45 revolutionaries hanged
  • March: Defense of India Act (allowed British to detain without trial, censor press) passed to crush Ghadr movement

Evaluation of Ghadr

• Achievement: preached militant nationalism with secular approach
• Failure: lacked organized leadership, underestimated preparation required
• Lala Hardayal was unsuited as organizer

Revolutionaries in Europe

• 1915: Berlin Committee for Indian Independence established by Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, Lala Hardayal

• Supported by German foreign office under "Zimmerman Plan"

• Goal: incite rebellion among Indian troops, organize armed invasion

• Indian revolutionaries sent missions to Baghdad, Paris, Turkey, Kabul

• Mission to Kabul: organized "provisional Indian government" with crown prince

Mutiny in Singapore

• February 15, 1915: Singapore Mutiny by Punjabi Muslim and Sikh battalions; 37 executed

Decline

• Temporary respite in revolutionary activity after WWI
• Defence of India Rules prisoners released
• Atmosphere of conciliation after Montagu's August 1917 statement
• Talk of constitutional reforms and Gandhi's entry with non-violence program

14. First World War and Nationalist Response

• WWI (1914 - 1919) → Britain, France, Russia, USA, Italy, Japan vs Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey
• Indian responses
  • Moderates → Duty to empire
  • Extremists/Tilak → Support for promised self-government
  • Revolutionaries → Opportunity to fight British
• Revolutionary activities: Ghadar Party (N. America), Chapter 12 - 17#^Berlin-Committee (Europe), soldier mutinies
• War reduced Indian troops to 15,000, created possibility for German/Turkish aid

Home Rule League Movement

• More effective response than revolutionary activities
• Leaders (Tilak, Besant, Khaparde, Iyer, Baptista, Jinnah) formed alliance for continuous action unlike Congress (which only had annual sessions)
• Goal: Self-government within British commonwealth, modelled after Irish Home Rule
• Two separate leagues (Tilak, Besant) launched aggressive political approach

Causative Factors

• Nationalists believed popular pressure needed for government concessions
• Moderates disillusioned with Morley-Minto reforms
• Wartime miseries (high taxation, rising prices) increased protest readiness
• War exposed myth of white superiority (by exposing European vulnerability, colonial soldiers' strength)
• Tilak after June 1914 release made conciliatory gestures, wanted Irish-style reforms not overthrow of the govt
• Annie Besant (in India since 1893) expanded activities to include home rule movement

The Leagues

• 1914: Tilak and Besant revived political activity independently after 1914 Congress session failure to reach Moderate Extremist reconciliation
• 1915: Besant
  • Campaigned for self government through newspapers and meetings
  • New India, Commonweal: Besant #Ind_Publications
• Separate leagues established b/w Tilak and Besant to avoid friction, coordinated by confining work to specific areas

Home Rule Programme

• Promoted self-government through education, meetings, propaganda, social work
• 1917 Russian Revolution advantaged campaign
• Attracted prominent leaders including Nehru and Jinnah
• Anglo-Indians, most Muslims and South non-Brahmins avoided movement → felt Home Rule would mean rule of Hindu Majority

Government Response

• Imposed severe repression, especially in Madras where students prohibited from attending political meetings
• 1917
  • June: Besant arrested, triggering nationwide protest
  • September: Besant released

Movement Decline by 1919

• Organisational weakness, communal riots (1917-18)
• Montagu's 1917 reform statement pacified Moderates
• Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (July 1918) divided nationalists
• September 1918: Tilak abroad for libel case
• Gandhi's approach gained momentum
• 1920: Gandhi renamed league to Swarajya Sabha, by 1921 league joined INC

Home Rule Movement Impact

• Transitioned Congress from deliberative to mass involvement
• Connected towns and countryside, created nationalists
• Prepared masses for Gandhian politics
• Influenced 1917 Montagu-Montford reforms through Tilak and Besant's efforts

1916 Lucknow Session

Readmission of extremists to congress

• Reunited Moderates and Extremists in Congress
• Readmitted Tilak's faction after he declared support for reform, denounced support for overthrow of govt, acts of violence
• Pherozeshah Mehta died → Led the moderate opposition to extremism

1916 Lucknow Pact

• Younger militant nationalists in Muslim League aligned with Congress on anti-imperialism
• Muslim League attitude shifted due to
  • Turkey abandonment by Britain
  • 1911: Bengal partition annulment
  • Refusal of British to set up university at Aligarh
  • WWI repression
• Key Provisions of the Pact
  • Congress accepted separate electorates until joint electorates demanded
  • Muslims received fixed proportion of legislative seats at all levels
  • Joint demands
    • Self-government declaration
    • Expanded elected assemblies at central and provincial levels
    • Salaries of Secretary of State for India should be paid by British treasury
    • Indian representation in executive councils of Viceroy and provincial governors

Montagu's Statement (August 1917)

• Promised increasing Indian participation in administration
• Gradual development of self-governing institutions
• Made self-government demands non-seditious
• Introduced concept of "dyarchy"

Indian Objections

• No specific timeframe given
• British would decide nature and timing of advances toward responsible government

15. Emergence of Gandhi

• Post-WWI nationalist resurgence in India and colonies
• Gandhi emerged as leader of broad-based struggle against imperialism

Why Nationalist Resurgence Now

• Post-War Economic Crisis: Indian war contributions unacknowledged, taxation funded war, thousands died
• Sectoral Suffering: Industries faced recession, workers unemployed, peasants overtaxed, returning soldiers disillusioned
• Political Expectations: Cooperation during war created expectations of British concessions
• Global Disillusionment: Paris Peace Conference revealed continued imperial ambitions → Instead of granting self determination Britain and France divided the colonies of defeated powers (Germany and Ottoman Empire) among themselves
• Russian Revolution Impact: Bolsheviks renounced imperial rights, demonstrated people's power

Impact of Russian Revolution 1917

• Bolshevik Party overthrew Czarist regime, established Soviet Union under Lenin
• Soviet Union renounced Czarist imperialist rights in Asia
• Granted self-determination to former colonies, equal status to Asian nationalities
• October Revolution demonstrated people's power against tyranny through organization and unity

Consequences

• Militant nationalist movements emerged across Asia/Africa
• Erosion of belief in white superiority
• Charged political atmosphere developed in India

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

• British "carrot and stick" approach: limited reforms with repressive measures
• Carrot → 1919 Reforms: Main Provisions
  • Centre: Bicameralism, Responsible govt, Elected with limited franchise (included women)
  • Provincial: Dyarchy
• Stick → Rowlatt Act

Limitations

• Franchise extended to only 1.5 million of 260 million population
• Governor/Viceroy retained override powers on all matters
• 75% of budget not votable by legislature
• Critical subjects (finance, police, justice) remained "reserved"
• Ministers lacked control over bureaucrats and finances

Indian Response

• Congress declared reforms "disappointing" and "unsatisfactory"
• Gandhi: "Method of further draining India's wealth"
• Tilak: "A sunless dawn"
• Bose: "Fresh fetters for the people"
• British critics acknowledged reforms preserved imperial control

Making of Gandhi

Early Career and Experiments with Truth in SA

• Born October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat; lawyer educated in England
• Witnessed racial discrimination against Indians in South Africa
• Three Indian groups: indentured labourers, merchants, ex-indentured families
• Indians denied voting rights, restricted to unsanitary areas, subject to curfews

Evolution of Resistance Methods

• 1894-1906: Moderate approach using petitions, founded Natal Indian Congress, started paper Indian Opinion
• 1906-1914: Formed Passive Resistance Association, developed satyagraha (passive resistance) against registration certificates requiring Indians to carry fingerprinted identification
• Organized public burning of registration certificates requiring fingerprints
• Protested three-pound poll tax on ex-indentured Indians
• Challenged Supreme Court invalidation of non-Christian marriages

Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act

• Indians challenged law restricting movement between South African provinces
• Mass imprisonment of protesters triggered worker strikes across industries
• Gokhale's India tour generated nationwide solidarity movement
• Lord Hardinge's official condemnation forced government to negotiate settlement
• South Africa conceded to major Indian demands on poll tax, registration certificates, marriage recognition
• Promised sympathetic treatment of Indian immigration

Gandhi in South Africa

• Masses showed capacity for sacrifice for meaningful causes
• United Indians across religious, class, gender differences
• Leaders sometimes need unpopular decisions
• Developed unique leadership style on limited scale

Satyagraha Technique

• Truth and non-violence foundation, influenced by Indian tradition, Christianity, Tolstoy
• Core principles: resist wrong, remain truthful, non-violent, fearless
• Methods: non-cooperation, boycott, tax refusal, declining honors
• Requires accepting suffering, maintaining love for opponents
• Demands courage; violence preferable to cowardice

Gandhi in India

• Returned in 1915
• Toured country one year, avoided political positions initially
• Rejected Home Rule agitation during WWI
• Only joined organizations accepting non-violent satyagraha
• 1917-1918: Led three foundational struggles

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• & First peasant movement with nationwide attention + First Satyagraha led by Gandhi in India
• First civil disobedience against tinkathia system → peasants forced to grow indigo on ${\displaystyle \frac{3}{20}}$ part of total land) → German synthetic dyes replaced indigo → Planters demanded high rents
• Gandhi reached to probe → ordered to leave → defied orders, risked punishment
• Secured abolishment of forced cultivation, partial compensation for illegal dues ($25\mathrm{\%}$)
• European planters eventually abandoned region

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

• Workers protested plague bonus withdrawal during wartime price doubling
• Demanded 50% wage increase; owners offered 20%
• Gandhi undertook first-ever fast unto death when talks failed
• Resulted in 35% wage increase for workers

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• Context and Triggers
  • Second satyagraha movement launched 7 days after Chapter 12 - 17#Ahmedabad Mill Strike 1918
  • Drought (which led to famine, cholera and plague) reduced yields below 25%, qualifying for tax remission per Revenue Code
  • Government refused relief, threatened seizures
• Leadership and Organization
  • Initially led by Mohanlal Pandya and Shankarlal Parikh
  • Gandhi led tax refusal campaign
  • SV Patel organized cross-community resistance
  • Women organised Bhajan Mandlis to leverage the participation of women in the agitation
• Farmer's Resistance and Support
  • Farmers maintained unity despite property seizures
  • Outside Gujaratis provided shelter and support
• Outcome and Significance
  • Quid-Pro-Quo agreement: If the well-to-do peasants paid up, the poor would be permitted not to pay, and all the confiscated properties would be returned. (Source: Amritmahotsav)
  • Connected economic struggle to independence movement

Gains

• Demonstrated efficacy of satyagraha technique
• Gandhi connected with masses, understood their strengths and weaknesses
• Gained respect and commitment, especially from youth

Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

• Background: British feared growing radical nationalist movements (Ghadar Party, Anushilan Samiti etc), Rowlatt Committee (Sedition Committee) recommended continuing emergency wartime measures even after the war

• Official Name: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919

• Extended wartime Defence of India Act as permanent law

• Provisions

  • Allowed detention without trial on mere suspicion of treason
  • Secret trials without juries
  • Acceptance of evidence not otherwise acceptable under Indian Evidences Act
  • Accused were presumed guilty and had to prove innocence (reverse burden of proof)

• Suspended habeas corpus, imposed press control

• & All elected Indian legislators (Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq) resigned in protest

Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act - First Mass Strike

• Indians expected self-rule rewards for war contributions, felt betrayed

• Gandhi organized Satyagraha Sabha with Home Rule Leagues and Pan-Islamists

• April 6, 1919: Launched nationwide hartal with fasting, prayer, civil disobedience

• Movement significance: directed mass grievances, incorporated peasants/artisans

• Permanently oriented national movement toward mass participation

• Violent demonstrations erupted in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi before launch

• Punjab situation explosive due to wartime repression, forced recruitment, disease

• & April 1919: Largest anti-British uprising since 1857 rebellion

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

• Tensions escalated after nationalist leaders arrested without cause (Saifuddin Kitchlew, Dr Satyapal)
• General Dyer banned gatherings during Baisakhi festival
• Jallianwala Bagh → Blocked only exit →Fired 1650 bullets on peaceful crowd without warning killing approx 1,000
• Followed by martial law, public humiliations, forced crawling
• Tagore renounced knighthood, Gandhi surrendered Kaiser-i-Hind (Emperor of India) title and concluded cooperation impossible with satanic regime
• Historians: Decisive moment alienating Indians from British rule
• Transformed Punjab politics, inspired future revolutionaries

The Hunter Committee of Inquiry

• 1919: Hunter Committee formed after Jallianwala Bagh massacre
  • Chaired by Lord Hunter with Indian members
    • Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad: Bombay University Vice-Chancellor, High Court advocate
    • Pandit Jagat Narayan: United Provinces Legislative Council Member, lawyer
    • Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan: Gwalior State lawyer
  • Investigated disturbances across Bombay, Delhi, Punjab
• 1920: Committee unanimously condemned Dyer's actions
  • Errors: no warning, excessive firing, authority overstepped
  • Indian members emphasized: actions "inhuman," insufficient notices
  • Dyer recalled to England with pension, no legal consequences

British Reaction

• Split between condemnation and support
• Churchill: "monstrous," cabinet sought dismissal of Dyer
• House of Lords backed Dyer, public raised £26,000
• Government passed protective Indemnity Act (White Washing Bill for protection of its officers) before inquiry

Congress View

• Congress formed parallel committee with nationalist leaders
• Criticized actions as inhuman, opposed martial law

16. Non Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan

• Mass movements using non-violent non-cooperation against British
• Cemented Hindu-Muslim unity despite separate origins

Background Factors

• Post-WWI economic crisis → rising prices, taxes, decreased production
• Rowlatt Act, Jallianwalla Bagh massacre → exposed British brutality
• Hunter Committee, British Parliament → endorsed General Dyer
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms → failed to satisfy self-government demands
• Lucknow Pact (1916), Rowlatt agitation → united Hindus and Muslims
• Radical nationalist Muslims → gained influence over conservative Aligarh school

The Khilafat Issue

• Turkish sultan (Khalifa) → spiritual leader for Muslims worldwide
• Post-WWI dismemberment of Turkey → angered Muslims globally
• 1919: Khilafat Committee formed → demanded Khalifa's control over sacred places
• Movement evolved → from petitions to boycott of British goods

Congress-Khilafat Alliance

• Gandhi → saw opportunity for united non-cooperation
• Congress supported Khilafat movement to:
  • Cement Hindu-Muslim unity
  • Incorporate diverse groups into national movement
  • Express mass discontent against colonial rule
• Muslim League → gave full support to Congress

The Non Cooperation Khilafat Movement

• 1920:
  • February: Failed deputation to viceroy; Gandhi announced would led a movement of non cooperation if terms of peace treaty not favourable to Khalifa
  • May: Treaty of Sevres dismembered Turkey
  • June: Allahabad conference approved boycott program, asked Gandhi to lead
  • August: Khilafat Committee launched non-cooperation
  • September: Congress approved non-cooperation program:
    • Boycott of
      • Government schools, colleges, courts
      • Legislative councils
      • Foreign cloth, use of khadi
    • Renunciation of government honours
  • December: Nagpur session of Congress
    • Endorsed non-cooperation
    • & Changed goal from self-government to swaraj through peaceful means
    • Established Congress Working Committee (CWC)
    • Organized provincial committees on linguistic basis
    • Reduced entry fee to four annas
• Some moderates (Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, GS Kharpade, BC Pal) wanted constitutional and lawful struggle → left Congress

Spread of the movement

• Educational boycott → Students switched from govt schools to national schools and colleges (800+ established)
• Foreign cloth burning / boycott → imports halved
• & Tilak Swaraj Fund collected ₹1 crore
• Ali brothers arrested for army resignation call
• Civil disobedience began in Bengal (Midnapore) and Andhra (Guntur) as non tax movement against union board taxes
• Strikes in Assam plantations and railways (leader: JM Sengupta)
• Local movements emerged across regions
  • UP: Awadh Kisan Movement, Eka Movement
  • Malabar: Mappila Revolt
  • Sikhs: Agitation for removal of mahants

People's Response

• Middle Class: Initially led movement, later hesitant; limited elite participation from Calcutta, Bombay, Madras; Rajendra Prasad (Bihar) / Vallabhbhai Patel (Gujarat) provided support
• Business: Supported boycott for swadeshi benefits; big business feared labor unrest
• Peasants: Massive participation despite Congress stance; expressed anti-British / anti Indian (masters and oppressors) sentiments
• Students: Thousands left government schools for national institutions
• Women: Gave up Purdah, donated valuables for Tilak Fund, joined picketing foreign goods
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: Two-thirds of arrestees Muslim; unprecedented communal cooperation

Government Response & Movement End

• May 1921: Gandhi-Reading talks failed over Ali brothers' speeches (Gandhi refused to ask them to remove portion from speeches that suggested violence)
• December: Crackdown on protesters, leaders arrested
• 1922
  • Gandhi threatened civil disobedience if political prisoner not released + press control not removed
  • February: Chauri Chaura violence (22 policemen killed) → Gandhi withdrew movement
  • Leaders (Bose, CR Das, Nehru) criticized withdrawal as premature
  • March: Gandhi sentenced to six years imprisonment

Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement

• People misunderstood non-violence principles
• Chauri-Chaura incident risked movement turning violent
• Colonial regime could easily suppress violent movement and justify armed response
• Movement showed fatigue; government unwilling to negotiate
• November 1922: Khilafat cause dissolved when Turkey became secular under Mustafa Kamal
• 1924: Caliphate abolished completely

Movement Impact Assessment

• Integrated urban Muslims into nationalism while partially communalising politics
• Leaders failed to transform religious consciousness into secular political awareness
• Successfully spread nationalist sentiment nationwide
• Politicised diverse population segments across social classes

17. Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces

Swarajists and No Changers

Genesis of Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party

• 1922
  • Post-Gandhi's arrest, nationalists divided on movement strategy
  • Swarajists (CR Das, Nehru, Khan) advocated council entry to expose weaknesses, create political arena
  • No-Changers (C Rajagopalachari, Patel, Rajendra Prasad, MA Ansari) favoured boycott continuation, constructive work
  • Swarajists' proposal defeated at Gaya Congress session
  • C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from Congress leadership
  • Formed Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party with Das as president

Key Arguments

• Swarajists: Council entry creates new front, prevents government manipulation, maintains momentum
• No-Changers: Parliamentary work diverts from constructive programs, diminishes revolutionary spirit

Agree to Disagree

• 1923: Compromise allowed Swarajists to contest elections as Congress group to avoid 1907 Surat type split

Swarajist Manifesto (October 1923)

• 1923:
  • October: Swarajists released manifesto
    • Criticized British selfish interests in governing India
    • Denounced reforms as exploitation tools under responsible government pretense
    • Promised to present self-government demand in councils
    • If demand ejected, would adopt uniform obstruction policy to make governance impossible
  • November:
    • Swarajists won 42/141 seats, secured Central Provinces majority

Gandhi's attitude

• Initially opposed council entry
• 1924
  • Feb: Released from prison, gradually reconciled with Swarajists
  • Felt public opposition to council entry would be counterproductive
  • Government crackdown on revolutionaries and Swarajists angered Gandhi
  • Both sides agreed at Congress Session#1924 Belgaum Session session that Swarajists would work in councils as part of Congress
  • & Congress Session#1924 Belgaum Session → Gandhi - Swarajists pact
    • Swarajists led by Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru wanted to engage in electoral politics
    • Unity b/w these 2 factions formalised by this pact

Swarajist Activity in Councils

• Weakened by communal riots, split into Responsivists (pro-government) and Non - Responsivists
• Responsivists (Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya, N.C. Kelkar) advocated government cooperation, office-holding, protecting Hindu interests
• 1925
  • Government divided Swarajists by separating militants/moderates, Hindus/Muslims
  • Swarajists lost Muslim support over Bengal tenant issues
• 1926
  • Leadership advocated civil disobedience, withdrew from legislatures
  • 1926 Elections: Swarajists performed poorly, won 40 seats in Central Legislative Assembly
• 1930
  • Swarajists walked out following Lahore Congress resolution on Purna Swaraj, beginning Civil Disobedience Movement

Achievements

• Opposed government on budgets
• Advocated self-government
• 1925: Elected Vitthalbhai Patel as speaker
• 1928: Defeated Public Safety Bill (would give govt power to deport undesirable foreigners)
• Exposed Montford scheme limitations
• Demonstrated councils could be used effectively

Drawbacks

• Failed to coordinate legislature/mass struggles
• Relied on newspapers reporting to communicate with public
• Limited coalition-building
• Embraced power privileges
• Neglected peasant causes in Bengal → lost support of Muslims

Constructive Work by No Changers

• Established ashrams among tribes/lower castes, promoted khadi / charkha
• Created national schools
• Worked for Hindu-Muslim unity, untouchability removal, foreign goods boycott
• Led civil disobedience organising

Critique of constructive work

• National education benefited only urban lower-middle classes and rich peasants
• Students attracted to official schools for degrees/jobs rather than ideological commitment
• Khadi promotion hampered by higher costs versus imported cloth
• Untouchability campaigns focused on social aspects while neglecting economic grievances of untouchable landless laborers

Emergency of New Forces: Socialist Ideas, Youth Power, Trade Unionism

• 1920s: Watershed decade—masses joined national movement, political currents crystallised (i.e political ideas became more structured and well defined)

Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas

• 1920: CPI formed by M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji in Tashkent
• Nehru-Bose left wing in Congress combined nationalism with social justice
• 1924: Kanpur Conspiracy Case (British jailed leaders for spreading communist ideas against their rule)
• 1925: CPI formalized
• 1929: Meerut conspiracy arrests (British arrested trade union leaders and communists → accused for planning workers revolt)

Mass Movements

• Youth: Student leagues nationwide
• 1928: Nehru led Bengal Students' Conference
• Peasants: Agitations for tenancy reforms across provinces
• 1928: Bardoli Satyagraha under Patel

Growth of Trade Unionism

• 1920: AITUC (All Indian Trade Union Congress) founded under Lala Lajpat Rai
• 1923: First Indian May Day in Madras
• 1928: Bombay textile strike—150,000 workers for 5 months

Social Reform

• Included
  • Chapter 7 - 11#Self-Respect Movement
  • Satyashodhak activists in Maharashtra
  • Mahars under Ambedkar

Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards Socialism

• Punjab - UP - Bihar: Hindustan Republic Association (HRA)
• Bengal
  • Yungantar
  • Anushilan group
  • Chittagong Revolt Group

Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s

Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity after Non Cooperation Movement

• 1920: Revolutionaries released under general amnesty, joined Non-Cooperation Movement
• Movement withdrawal caused disillusionment with non-violence strategy
• Rejected parliamentary Swarajist work and No-Changers' constructive approach
• Revived violent methods as alternative nationalist strategy

Major Influences

• Working class trade unionism after WWI
• 1917: Russian Revolution success inspired revolutionaries
• Communist groups promoting Marxism and socialism
• Revolutionary journals and banned books spread revolutionary ideas
  • Atmashakti, Sarathi, Bijoli #Ind_Publications
  • Books → Bandi Jiwan (Sachin Sanyal), Pather Dabi (Sharatchandra Chatterjee)

Punjab-UP-Bihar Activity

• 1924: HRA (Hindustan Republic Association / Army) founded in Kanpur (Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Sachin Sanyal), aimed for Federal Republic with adult franchise

• 1925: Kakori Robbery led to arrests, executions of Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri

• 1928

  • HRA renamed HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Association) under Azad's leadership, adopted socialism
  • Saunders murdered avenging Lala Lajpat Rai

• 1929: Central Legislative Assembly bombing to protest repressive bills (Public Safety Bill, Trade Disputes Bill)

• 23 March, 1931: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru hanged, became national heroes (Shaheed Diwas / Sarvodaya Day)

In Bengal

• 1920s: Revolutionary groups reorganised underground activities
• Post-1925: Bengal Congress split after C.R. Das's death into
  • Anushilan: JM Sengupta
  • Yugantar: Subhash Bose
• 1924: Gopinath Saha executed for assassination attempt, triggered government crackdown
• Factional conflicts initially weakened revolutionary movement

Chittagong Group

• Surya Sen's Chittagong group emerged as most significant revolt group
• 1930: Chittagong Armoury Raid captured weapons, cut communication lines
• 65 activists under Indian Republican Army-Chittagong Branch hoisted national flag, proclaimed revolutionary government
• 1934: Surya Sen's execution inspired continuous revolutionary recruitment

New Phase in Bengal

• Positives
  • Women revolutionaries participated extensively in combat and support
  • Group action emphasized over individual heroism
  • Religious barriers diminished, increased Muslim participation
• Negatives
  • Retained conservative elements
  • Lacked broader socio-economic vision

Official Reaction

• Severe government repression with 20 repressive acts
• Villages burned, punitive fines imposed after Chittagong
• 1933: Nehru imprisoned for praising revolutionaries

Ideological Rethinking

• 1925: HRA Manifesto
  • Aimed to abolish systems enabling "exploitation of man by man"
  • Advocated nationalising industries, creating labor organizations for planned revolution
• Late 1920s
  • Revolutionaries shifted from individual violence to mass political movement
  • Bismil urged abandoning weapons for open revolutionary work, Hindu-Muslim unity
• Bhagat Singh
  • Transitioned from violent action to Marxism
  • Revolution must be "by masses, for masses"
  • 1926: Established Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha for political work among youth, peasants, workers
  • Organized Lahore Students' Union (with Sukhdev), recognized revolution required mass movement organization
  • Promoted secularism