18. Simon Commission and the Nehru Report

Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission

• 1919 Act mandated 10-year review commission; all-white Simon Commission established November 1927
• Conservatives rushed commission before 1929 deadline fearing Labour victory
• British#Lee Commission 1923
• British#Muddiman Committee 1924
• British#Linlithgow Commission 1926

Indian Response

• Unanimous anger over Indian exclusion; viewed as violation of self-determination
• Dec 1927: Congress → boycott commission; Nehru secured independence resolution
• Hindu Mahasabha and Jinnah's Muslim League supported boycott; Shafi faction opposed
• 3 February 1928: Commission arrival met with nationwide hartals, "Simon Go Back" demonstrations
• Youth movement emerged with Nehru and Bose as leaders

Dr Ambedkar's Position

• Appointed by Bombay Council to work with Council
• Argued for universal franchise, provincial autonomy, dyarchy at centre
• On behalf of Bahishkrita Hitakarni Sabha
  • Advocated depressed classes as distinct minority needing equal representation to Muslims
  • Requested reserved seats or separate electorate; educational and public service safeguards
  • Commission granted reserved seats with governor-endorsed candidates; Ambedkar dissatisfied

Police Repression

• Violent suppression of demonstrations; Nehru and Pant beaten
• 1928: Lala Lajpat Rai fatally injured; called blows last nails in coffin of British Imperialism

Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission on the National Movement

• Stimulated radical forces demanding independence and socialist reforms
• Provided Congress mass action opportunity
• Birkenhead's challenge to produce an agreed constitution was accepted, improved unity prospects → Led to Nehru Report (1928)

Simon Commission Recommendations (1930)

• Dyarchy Removal, Provincial autonomy with governor's discretionary powers
• Rejected central parliamentary responsibility, Governor General to appoint cabinet at discretion
• Retained communal electorates
• Delayed federalism via Consultative Council
• NWFP/Baluchistan → Local legislature + Central Representation
• Sindh/Burma separation
• Indian army Indianisation with British forces

Nehru Report (1928)

• & First Indian constitutional framework attempt
• Committee members → Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhas Chandra Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuaib Qureshi, G.R. Pradhan
• Unanimous report except dominion status vs complete independence

Communal Tensions

• Delhi Proposals (1927): Muslim League demanded
  • Joint electorates with Muslim reserved seats
  • One-third Muslim representation in Central Assembly
  • Proportional representation in Punjab and Bengal
  • New Muslim-majority provinces (Sindh, Baluchistan, NWFP)
• Hindu Mahasabha: Opposed Muslim provinces/reservations
• Nehru Report granted concessions to Hindu Mahasabha
  • Joint electorates with Muslim reservations only where minority
  • Sindh detachment from Bombay with conditions
  • Unitary political structure with center holding residual powers

Jinnah's Response

• Amendments (1928): one-third Muslim representation, provincial residual powers
• Fourteen Points (1929)
  • Federal constitution with provincial autonomy
  • Provincial autonomy
  • State concurrence for constitutional amendments
  • Muslim representation in all elected bodies
  • One-third Muslim representation in central legislature
  • One-third Muslim cabinet representation
  • Separate electorates
  • No legislation against Muslim interests
  • No territorial redistribution affecting Muslim majorities
  • Sindh separation from Bombay
  • Reforms in NWFP and Baluchistan
  • Religious freedom
  • Protection of Muslim rights

Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory

• Report rejected by communal groups
• Young Congress leaders (SC Bose, JL Nehru) rejected dominion status for complete independence and jointly set up the Independence for India League

19. Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences

• December 1928
  • Calcutta Congress session, Nehru Report approved
  • Younger elements (Nehru, Bose, Satyamurthy) demanded Purna Swaraj instead of dominion status
  • Older leaders (Gandhi, Motilal Nehru) preferred gradual approach to independence
  • Congress ultimatum: dominion status by year-end or civil disobedience for complete independence
• 1929:
  • Events → Chapter 12 - 17#^Meerut-Conspiracy, Chapter 12 - 17#^Central-Legislative-Assembly-Bombing, Labour Govt in England, Wedgewood Benn became Secretary of India
  • Gandhi prepared masses, organized foreign cloth boycott campaign

Irwins Declaration (October 1929)

• Purpose: Restore faith in the ultimate purpose of British Policy
• Promised eventual dominion status, proposed Round Table Conference

Delhi Manifesto (November 1929)

• Delhi Manifesto issued by national leaders with conditions for Rou√nd Table Conference
  • Conference should formulate constitution for dominion status implementation
  • Congress should have majority representation
  • General amnesty for political prisoners
• Irwin rejected Delhi Manifesto demands

Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj

• December 1929: Lahore Congress under Nehru's presidency
  • Declared complete independence goal, authorized civil disobedience
  • Decided to boycott Round Table Conference, legislators to resign
  • Set January 26, 1930 as Independence Day
  • December 31: Tricolor flag hoisted by Nehru at River Ravi

January 26, 1930: The Independence Pledge

• Independence Pledge Read Nationwide
• Declared inalienable right to freedom
• Detailed British exploitation (economic, political, cultural, spiritual)
• Committed to civil disobedience through non-payment of taxes

Civil Disobedience Movement - The Salt Satyagraha and Other Upsurges

Gandhi's Eleven Demands

• 1930: Gandhi issued 11-point ultimatum
  • Issues of General Interest: 50% military/civil expenditure reduction, total prohibition, CID reforms, Arms Act changes, political prisoner release, Postal Reservation Bill
  • Specific Bourgeois Demands: Rupee-sterling ratio reduction to 1s 4d, textile protection (1 shilling + 4 pence = 16 pence), coastal shipping for Indians
  • Specific Peasant Demands: 50% land revenue reduction, salt tax and monopoly abolition
• Congress Working Committee authorized Gandhi to launch movement

Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme

• Salt tax affected millions of poor → universal grievance without divisive implications
• Provided symbolic identification opportunity for mass participation

Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930)

• Gandhi led 78 followers on 240-mile march from Ahemdabad → violated salt law at Dandi
• Directives: salt law disobedience, foreign shop picketing, tax refusal, lawyer practice suspension, court boycotts

Spread of Salt Law Disobedience

• 1930:
  • April: Nehru's arrest → demonstrations in Madras, Calcutta, Karachi
  • May: Gandhi's arrest → after his announcement of raid on Dharasana Salt Works
• After Gandhi's arrest → CWC sanctioned
  • Ryotwari areas → Non payment of revenue
  • Zamindari areas → No chowkidara tax (Tax charged on farmers etc to pay village watchmen)
  • Central provinces → Violation of forest laws

Satyagraha at Different Places

| • Rajagopalachari organized salt march from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranniyam (April 1930)
• Foreign cloth picketing in Coimbatore, Madura, Virudhunagar |
| Malabar | • K. Kelappan
• P. Krishna Pillai | • Kelappan organized Vaikom Satyagraha
• Krishna Pillai defended national flag against police lathi-charge at Calicut beach (November 1930) |
| Andhra Region | Local district leaders | • Salt marches in east/west Godavari, Krishna, Guntur
• Shibirams (military-style camps) as movement headquarters
• Merchant financial support |
| Orissa | Gopalbandhu Choudhury | • Choudhury led effective salt satyagraha in coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack, Puri |
| Assam | Student leaders | • Limited civil disobedience due to Assamese/Bengali and Hindu/Muslim divisions
• Successful student strike against Cunningham Circular (May 1930) |
| Bengal | • SC Bose
• JM Sengupta | • Largest number of arrests despite Congress divisions
• Strong movements around salt satyagraha and chaukidari tax resistance
• Movement persisted despite communal riots
• Chapter 12 - 17#Chittagong Group activities under Surya Sen |
| Bihar | Local district organizers | • Champaran and Saran first districts to start salt satyagraha
• Powerful no-chaukidari tax agitation replaced salt movement due to geographical constraints
|
| Hazaribagh (Chhotanagpur) | • Bonga Majhi
• Somra Majhi | • Lower-class tribal militancy
• Movement combining socio-religious reform with sanskritising elements (give up meat, liquor, use khadi)
• Gandhian influence adapted to tribal context |
| Peshawar | Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan / Badshah Khan / Frontier Gandhi | • Khan started Pukhtoon #Ind_Publications and his Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) led protests
• April 23 arrests of Congress leaders triggered mass demonstrations
• City under crowd control for a week |
| Sholapur | Textile worker leaders | • Textile workers struck May 7-16 after Gandhi's arrest
• Burning of government symbols
• Establishment of parallel government requiring martial law |
| Dharasana, Gujarat | • Sarojini Naidu
• Imam Sahib
• Manilal (Gandhi's son) | • May 21, 1930 Dharasana Salt Works raid led by Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal Gandhi
• Faced brutal lathi-charge resulting in 2 deaths, 320 injuries |
| Gujarat | Local district leaders | • Determined no-revenue campaign in Anand, Borsad, Nadiad (Kheda), Bardoli (Surat), Jambusar (Bharuch)
• Villagers fled to princely states to avoid repression |
| Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces | Forest community leaders | • Forest law defiance including grazing/timber restrictions
• Illegal forest produce sales |
| United Provinces | Zamindari and tenant leaders | • No-revenue campaign targeting zamindars and tenants
• Activity accelerated October 1930 in Agra and Rai Bareilly |
| Manipur and Nagaland | 📌 Rani Gaidinliu | • 13-year-old Rani Gaidinliu raised banner of revolt against British rule
• Urged people not to pay taxes |

Impact of Agitation

• Foreign imports fell, government lost revenue from various sources
• Legislative Assembly elections boycotted

Extent of Mass Participation

• Women formed picket lines at liquor shops, foreign cloth shops
• Students and youth led boycott efforts
• Muslim participation limited compared to 1920-22 movement
• Various groups participated: merchants, tribals, workers, peasants
• Regional participation varied with strong showing in certain areas

Government Response - Efforts for Truce

• Government faced dilemma: repression vs. inaction (Congress claimed repression vs victory)
• Civil liberties restricted, Congress Working Committee banned
• Violence against protesters, thousands imprisoned
• 1930
  • July: Viceroy proposed round table conference
  • August: Nehrus met Gandhi in jail
• Talks failed over demands
  • Right of secession from Britain
  • Complete national government control over defense and finance
  • Independent tribunal for Britain's financial claims

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

• 1931:
  • January: Congress leaders released unconditionally
  • March: Delhi Pact / Gandhi Irwin Pact signed with specific terms
• Government agreed to

  • Political concessions

    • Release all political prisoners not convicted of violence

    • Remission of uncollected fines

    • Lenient treatment to resigned government servants

    • Withdrawal of emergency ordinances

  • Land and property rights

    • Return lands not sold to third parties
    • Salt making rights in coastal villages

  • Civil liberties

    • Peaceful picketing rights
• Viceroy turned down

  • Public inquiry into police excesses

  • Commutation of Bhagat Singh and comrades' death sentences

• Gandhi agreed to
  • Suspend civil disobedience
  • Participate in next Round Table Conference

Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement

• Not a retreat: mass movements naturally short-lived, exhaustion evident
• Youth disappointed after enthusiastic participation
• Peasants of Gujarat disappointed as lands not restored immediately
• Political prisoners given hero's welcome upon release

Comparison to Non-Cooperation Movement

• Movement Characteristics
  • Stated objective was complete independence not vaguely worded swaraj
  • Methods involved law violation from beginning
  • Congress organizationally stronger
• Participation Patterns
  • Decline in intelligentsia protests
  • Muslim participation nowhere near Non-Cooperation level
  • No major labour upsurge
  • Massive peasant and business participation compensated for other features
• Impact Metrics
  • Imprisonment numbers tripled

Karachi Congress Session - 1931

• Disapproved political violence while admiring martyrs' "bravery" and "sacrifice"
• Endorsed Delhi Pact (Gandhi-Irwin Pact) → Black flag protests greeted Gandhi over failure to secure commutation of death sentences
• Reiterated Purna Swaraj goal
• Adopted two key resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme
• Fundamental Rights Resolution
  • Free speech/press
  • Form associations
  • Universal franchise
  • Equal rights irrespective of caste, creed sex
  • Religious neutrality
  • Compulsory primary education
  • Minority protections
• National Economic Programme
  • Economic reforms for rural areas
    • Substantial rent and revenue reduction for landholders and peasants
    • Exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings
    • Relief from agricultural indebtedness
    • Abolition of usury (lending money at unreasonably high interest rates)
  • Labor reforms
    • Better work conditions including living wage, limited hours, protection for women workers
    • Right for workers and peasants to form unions
  • Industrial policy
    • State ownership of key industries, mines, transport

The Round Table Conferences

Civil Disobedience Resumed

• 1931: Congress Working Committee resumed civil disobedience after Round Table Conference failure

During Truce Period (March-December 1931)

• United Provinces: Congress led rent reduction movement
• NWFP: Repression against Khudai Khidmatgars and peasants led by them against brutal methods of tax collection
• Bengal: Mass detentions
• September 1931: Hijli Jail firing incident

Changed Govt Attitude After Second RTC

• Prevent Gandhi building mass movement tempo
• Maintain confidence of government functionaries, loyalists
• Block rural consolidation of national movement
• 31 Dec 1931: Viceroy Willingdon refused a meeting with Gandhi
• 4 Jan 1932: Gandhi arrested

Government Action

• "Civil Martial Law" imposed via repressive ordinances
• Congress banned, activists arrested, properties confiscated
• Women targeted, press gagged, literature banned

Popular Response

• 80,000 Satyagrahis jailed in first four months
• Protests: picketing, gatherings, demonstrations, tax resistance
• Movement failed: leaders arrested, masses unprepared
• 1934: Gandhi withdrew movement despite maintaining political faith

Communal Award and Poona Pact

• 16 August, 1932: Ramsay MacDonald announced Communal Award (based on findings of Lothian Committee)
• Provisions of communal award
  • Electoral provisions
    • Separate electorates for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, depressed classes, Marathas lasting 20 years
    • Provincial legislature seats distributed on communal basis
    • Existing provincial legislature seats doubled
    • Muslims in minority areas granted weightage
    • Depressed classes accorded minority status
    • Depressed classes given "double vote" (separate and general electorates)
  • Special representation allocations
    • 3% seats reserved for women in all provinces except NWFP
    • Specific seat allocations for labourers, landlords, traders, industrialists
    • Bombay province: 7 seats allocated for Marathas

Congress Stand

• Opposed separate electorates but wouldn't change Award without minorities' consent
• Neither accepted nor rejected the Award

Gandhi's Response

• Viewed Award as attack on Indian unity and nationalism
• Argued separate political entity for depressed classes undermined abolishing untouchability
• Claimed separate electorates would perpetuate untouchability
• Demanded depressed classes be elected through joint electorates
• 20 September, 1932: Started indefinite fast
• Ambedkar, MC Rajah, and Madan Mohan Malaviya negotiated compromise in Poona Pact

Poona Pact

• 24 September, 1932
  • Agreement signed abandoning separate electorates for depressed classes
  • Signed by total of 23 people
    • Prominent Men#BR Ambedkar
    • Madan Mohan Malaviya
    • & Gandhi did not sign the pact, his son Devdas Gandhi did
• Reserved seats increased: 71 → 147 provincial, 18% Central Legislature
• Government accepted above Communal Award amendment

Impact on Dalits

• Limitations of political representation for depressed classes
  • Failed emancipation despite political rights, preserved Hindu social order
  • Depressed classes became political tools of caste Hindu organizations
  • Representatives ineffective against Hindu-chosen stooges
  • Prevented independent leadership development
• Long-term consequences
  • Subordinated Dalits into Hindu social structure
  • Blocked equality-based society
  • Pre-empted constitutional safeguards in independent India

Joint Electorates Impact

• All India Scheduled Caste Federation alleged → 1935 joint electorates prevented true representation
• Hindu majority could nominate compliant scheduled caste members
• Federation demanded separate electorates until 1947

Gandhi's Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste

Gandhi's Harijan Campaign

• September 1932: Established All India Anti-Untouchability League
• January 1933: Started weekly Harijan newspaper
• August 1933: Launched campaign against untouchability from jail
• Nov 1933 - July 1934: Conducted nationwide Harijan tour covering 20,000 km after release → Collected funds for Harijan Sevak Sangh
• Faced orthodox opposition; government defeated Temple Entry Bill (1934) (would've allowed Dalits temple entry)
• Combined social reform with nationalist messaging to Harijan labourers

Gandhi's caste philosophy

• Condemned untouchability while preserving varnashram system
• "Hinduism dies if untouchability lives"
• Differed from Ambedkar's call for complete caste annihilation
• Advocated temple entry, penance by caste Hindus
• Preferred persuasion over compulsion
• Envisioned complementary rather than hierarchical caste relations
• Included Harijan self-improvement (education, hygiene, dietary reform)

Dr Ambedkar vs Gandhi

Difference in approach

Common aspects in approach

• Social Justice & Equality
  • Combating Dalit inequalities
    • Ambedkar: Legal reforms
    • Gandhi: Social transformation
  • Eradication of untouchability
    • Different approaches, shared goal
• Education as Empowerment
  • Advocacy for reforms
  • Inclusive: Caste, gender, class-agnostic
• Non-violent Methods
  • Peaceful approaches
  • Negotiation-based strategies

20. Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil Disobedience Movement

• Two-stage debate
  • 1934 - 1935: Immediate strategy
  • 1937: Office acceptance question in provincial elections under GOI Act 1935
  • First stage presented three perspectives: Gandhian constructive work, constitutional participation, leftist mass struggle

The First Stage Debate

• Perspective 1: Constructive work on Gandhian lines
• Perspective 2: Constitutional struggle advocates argued elections maintain political interest without implying faith in constitutional politics
• Perspective 3: Nehru-led leftists rejected both approaches, favored continued mass struggle against colonialism

Nehru's Vision

• Goal: replace capitalism with socialism
• Viewed movement withdrawal as ideological surrender
• Advocated class-based organizations (kisan sabhas and trade unions) affiliated with Congress
• Insisted anti-imperialism required class struggle integration

Nehru's Opposition to Struggle-Truce-Struggle Strategy

• Gandhi supporters favoured alternating struggle and recovery phases (S-T-S)
• Nehru advocated continuous confrontation through direct action
• Proposed Struggle-Victory (S-V) strategy without constitutional compromise

Finally, Yes to Council Entry

• Gandhi reconciled opposition by ensuring constructive work continued alongside parliamentary politics
• 1934: Congress established Parliamentary Board, won 44/75 Indian seats
• Internal tensions remained between Gandhi and various sections
  • Section favouring parliamentary politics
  • Section against Gandhi's emphasis on spinning wheel as second lung of the nation
  • Section of socialists led by Nehru
• 1934: Gandhi announced resignation from Congress

GOI Act 1935

• Different Acts by the British#Government of India Act 1935#Administration
• Different Acts by the British#Government of India Act 1935#Central Legislature
• Different Acts by the British#Government of India Act 1935#Provincial Legislature

Evaluation

• Governor general's safeguards + special responsibilities hindered proper functioning
• Governor retained extensive powers
• Limited franchise (14% population)
• Communal electorates fostered separatism leading to partition
• Rigid constitution with amendment rights reserved for British Parliament

Long-Term British Strategy

• Short term: Suppress movement
• Long term: Weaken national movement, integrate large segment of movement into colonial, constitutional and administrative structure
• Reforms to revive political standing of constitutional liberals who lost support during Civil Disobedience
• Aimed to convince Congressmen of ineffectiveness of extra-legal struggle
• Create dissensions within Congress: placate right wing, crush radical leftists
• Provincial autonomy would create powerful provincial leaders, weakening central leadership

Nationalists' Response

• 1935 Act rejected by Congress, supported by Hindu Mahasabha and National Liberal Foundation
• Congress demanded adult franchise-based Constituent Assembly

The Second Stage Debate

• 1937: Provincial elections announced
• Strategy debate resumed → 1935 Act was to be opposed but unclear since mass movement not possible
• Ideological divisions emerged on post-election approach

Divided Opinion

• Opposed to office acceptance
  • Nehru-Bose-leftists opposed office acceptance
  • Arguments: Negated rejection of act, Assumed responsibility without power, Diminished revolutionary character
  • Leftist counter-strategy: Enter councils to create deadlocks, make act unworkable
  • Long-term strategy: Increased reliance on workers/peasants, integrating class organizations
• Favour of office acceptance
  • Participation as strategy to combat act from within, prevent reactionary control
  • Viewed legislative work as socialist strategy, not abandonment of mass movement

Gandhi's Position

• Initially opposed office acceptance at CWC meeting
• By 1936, willing to give trial to Congress ministries
• Sessions at Lucknow (1936) and Faizpur (1937) decided to fight elections
• Congress resolution: Not submit to constitution but combat it inside and outside legislatures

Congress Manifesto

• Political Declarations
  • Reaffirmed total rejection of the 1935 Act
  • Promised release of prisoners
• Social Justice Commitments
  • Removal of disabilities on the basis of gender and caste
  • Right to form trade unions and to strike
• Economic Reforms
  • Promised radical transformation of the agrarian system
  • Substantial reduction of rent and revenue
  • Scaling down of rural debts
  • Cheap credit
• Gandhi abstained from election meetings

Elections and Congress Performance

• February 1937: 30.1 million voters participated
• Congress won 716/1,161 seats, majority in most provinces
• Nationalist strategy vindicated, prestige increased

21. Congress Rule in Provinces

• Congress ministries formed in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orissa, UP, Bihar, NWFP, Assam

Gandhi's advice

• Hold offices lights, to be seen as crown of thorns
• Prove Congress could rule with minimal police/army

Work under Congress Ministries

• Ministries increased Congress prestige but couldn't change imperial system fundamentals

Civil Liberties

• Post-Emergency Reforms
  • Repealed emergency powers laws
  • Lifted ban on organizations (Hindustan Seva Dal, Youth Leagues)
  • Removed press restrictions, newspapers from blacklists
  • Restored confiscated arms/licenses, curbed police powers, stopped shadowing politicians
  • Released political prisoners, revoked deportation/internment orders
• Civil Disobedience Movement Reparations
  • Restored lands confiscated during Civil Disobedience Movement
  • Restored pensions of officials associated with Civil Disobedience Movement
• Contradictions and Exceptions
  • Yusuf Meherally and S.S. Batliwala arrested (both socialist, gave seditious / inflammatory speeches)
  • K.M. Munshi used CID against communists/leftists

Agrarian Reforms

• Agrarian reforms were constrained due to
  • Political and Administrative Constraints
    • Inadequate ministerial powers
    • Confrontational politics (over cooperation) with colonialism
    • Reactionary Legislative Council (dominated by landlords, moneylenders etc) required conciliation
  • Economic and Resource Constraints
    • Insufficient financial powers → major portion of budget appropriated by GOI
    • Complex agrarian structure
  • Social and Strategic Constraints
    • Need to neutralize zamindars through class adjustments
  • Temporal Constraints
    • 1938: WWII war clouds
• Despite constraints, legislated laws on land reforms, debt relief, grazing fees, rent arrears
• Main beneficiaries: Statutory / occupancy tenants

Labour Reforms

• Promoted arbitration over strikes
• Improved conditions while controlling militant unions

Social welfare

• Harijan welfare initiatives
  • Harijan welfare measures (temple entry, public facilities access, scholarships)
  • Increased Harijans in government services and police
• Education and public health
  • Focus on primary/technical/higher education and public health/sanitation
• Economic development
  • Khadi promotion through subsidies
  • Indigenous enterprise encouragement
  • 1938: Planning development through National Planning Committee under Subhas Chandra Bose
• Administrative reforms
  • Prison reforms

Extra Parliamentary Activity

• Mass literacy campaigns
• Congress police stations and panchayats
• Congress Grievance Committees presenting petitions
• States peoples' movements

Evaluation

• Positive Outcomes
  • Congress rule
    • Confirmed self-government necessity
    • Demonstrated state power use
    • Controlled riots
    • Weakened bureaucracy
    • Neutralised opposition
    • Previewed independence
  • Administrative success disproved Indians-can't-rule myth
  • Provided independence preview
• Congress Shortcomings
  • 1939: Power struggles emerged, resigned after WWII outbreak
  • Shifted toward capitalists, away from labor
  • 1938: Passed anti-labor Bombay Traders Disputes Act
  • Failed to resolve Praja Mandal dilemma
  • Struggled meeting governance expectations
• All India Muslim League Response
  • Annoyed with Congress for not sharing power
  • 1938: Pirpur Committee documented alleged Congress atrocities
  • Charged religious interference, Urdu suppression, Hindu favouritism
  • Claimed Muslim marginalisation in representation and economy

22. Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II

Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle

• Post-civil disobedience: Gandhi concerned with corruption, indiscipline, rivalries
• Gandhi's views
  • Congress needed internal reform before resuming movement
  • Masses not ready for struggle; others disagreed

Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash Bose's Views

• Bose Ideologies
  • Bose: Bengal Provincial Congress leader focused on youth, trade unions
  • Opposed dominion status, demanded full independence
  • Rejected Gandhi-Irwin Pact, protested Bhagat Singh's death sentence
• 1938: Elected president at Haripura
  • Advocated economic development through planning, set up National Planning Committee later
  • Supported agitation against princely states
• 1939: Congress Internal Strife
  • Bose again won presidency against Gandhi's candidate
  • Gandhi: "Pattabhi's defeat is my defeat"
  • Ideological polarization intensified within Congress
  • Working committee resigned after Bose's accusations (accused of being ready to reach a compromise with govt on matters of federation)
• Tripuri Confrontation - 1939
  • March: Bose called for six-month ultimatum to British
  • Bose: Congress strong, masses ready, international crisis (WWII) favorable
  • Gandhi: opposed ultimatum, cited unreadiness, communal discord, class strife
  • Fundamental ideological divide: immediate radical action (Bose) vs. preparation (Gandhi)
  • Resolution passed supporting Gandhian approach
  • April: Bose resigned, Rajendra Prasad elected president
  • May: Bose formed Forward Bloc within Congress
  • August: Bose removed from leadership of Bengal Provincial Congress Committee, barred from office

Gandhi and Bose

Differences

Similarities

• Mutual Respect
  • Gandhi called Bose "Prince among the Patriots"
  • Bose recognized Gandhi as "Father of Nation"
• Anti-Imperialism
  • Dedicated to complete independence from British colonial rule
  • Willing to endure personal hardship for independence cause
• National Unity
  • Worked to unite Indians across religious and regional divides
  • Supported religious tolerance and opposed communalism
• Social Reform
  • Strongly condemned untouchability as barrier to progress
  • Advocated for women's participation in freedom struggle
  • Believed women should have elevated status in society
  • Opposed traditional constraints limiting women's potential
• Economic Vision
  • Believed some form of socialism necessary for India's future
  • Opposed exploitation and advocated equitable distribution
• Educational Reform
  • Recognized importance of education reform for national development
  • Wanted Indian education system distinct from British colonial model
  • Emphasized practical skills alongside theoretical knowledge
• Ideological Boundaries
  • Rejected racial superiority theories despite Bose's tactical alliances
  • Disliked communism as political system for India

Second World War and Nationalistic Response

• 1939: Germany attacked Poland September 1, Britain declared war September 3
• British India declared support without Indian consultation

Congress Offer to Viceroy

• Conditional war support with two requirements
  • Post-war constituent assembly
  • Immediate responsible government
• Linlithgow rejected offer despite Congress argument conditions needed for public support

CWC Meeting at Wardha

• Gandhi: Supported Allies due to stronger anti-fascist stance despite disliking imperialism
• Socialists (Bose, Dev, Narayan): Opposed participation, viewed war as imperialist conflict, considered ideal time to launch civil disobedience movement
• Nehru: Recognized democracy-fascism distinction but demanded Indian freedom first
• CWC Resolution: Condemned fascist aggression, stated India couldn't join war without
  • Democratic freedom in India
  • Britain proving commitment to democracy by ending imperialism
  • Government declaring war aims regarding democracy after war

Government Attitude and Congress Ministries' Resignation

• Linlithgow's negative response (October 17) leveraged Muslim League + Princes against Congress
• Government refused to define war aims, proposed consultative committee only

Government's Hidden Agenda

• British policy used war to regain control, implemented emergency powers
• Defence ordinance restricted civil liberties; May 1940 draft prepared for pre-emptive strikes
• Aimed to win liberal and leftist sympathy by showing Congress as pro Japan and Germany
• Churchill supported reactionary policies, branded Congress as Hindu organization

Congress Ministries Decide to Resign

• CWC (October 23) rejected rejected viceregal statement as imperialist policy
• CWC decided not to support war and called for Congress ministries to resign in provinces

Debate on the Question of Immediate Mass Satyagraha

• Gandhi opposed immediate struggle due to just allied cause, communal sensitivities and organisational weakness
• Advocated political work before launching struggle
• 1940: Linlithgow → Goal of British policy in India is Dominion status after war

November 1939 CWC Resolution

• Declared war fought for imperialist ends like WWI
• Demanded independence and constituent assembly

The Ramgarh Session (March 1940)

• Internal disagreement between Gandhi's cooperation and Nehru/Bose's militancy
• Congress demanded complete independence, not dominion status
• Civil disobedience would begin when organization ready

Pakistan Resolution—Lahore (March 1940)

• Muslim League called for independent Muslim-majority states

August Offer (1940)

August Offer - Proposals

• Proposed by: Viceroy Linlithgow
• Expansion of viceroy executive council with more Indians / Indian majority executive council
• Establishment of advisory war council
• Post-war constituent assembly
  • Indians would decide the constitution according to their social, political, economic conceptions (subject to defence, minority rights treaties etc)
  • No constitution without minorities consent
• Dominion Status: Ultimate objective for India

Evaluation

• & First recognition of Indians' right to frame constitution
• Congress demand for constituent assembly conceded
• July 1941: Viceroy's executive council expanded with Indian majority (8 of 12)

August Offer - Reason for Rejection

• Congress leaders rejected dominion status
• & Dominion status concept is dead as a doornail ~ Prominent Men#JL Nehru
• Muslim League welcomed veto assurance but reiterated demand for partition

Individual Satyagraha

• Gandhi initiated limited civil disobedience against war participation
• 🎯
  • Show nationalist patience not weakness
  • Express disinterest in war
  • Give government opportunity to accept demands
• 25,000 convicted by May 1941, evolved into "Delhi Chalo Movement"

Gandhi-Nehru Relationship

• December 1941: Congress leaders released after Japan's attack
• CWC overruled Gandhi/Nehru objections, passed resolution to cooperate in defense if
  • Full independence after war
  • Immediate transfer of substantial power
• Gandhi designated Nehru as successor despite differences
  • Temperament: Nehru secular, Gandhi religious
  • Development: Nehru favoured industrialisation, Gandhi rural revival
  • State power: Nehru believed in modern state, Gandhi in individual conscience
• Gandhi chose Nehru because he reflected pluralist, inclusive idea of India
• Nehru was Hindu trusted by Muslims, northerner respected in south, admired by women

Cripps Mission

• March 1942: Stafford Cripps sent to India with constitutional proposals seeking war support
• Cripps: left-wing Labourite, supported Indian national movement

Why Mission Sent

• Japanese threat to India made Indian support crucial
• Allied pressure (USA, USSR, China) for Indian cooperation
• Nationalists demanded immediate power transfer and post-war independence

Main Proposals of Cripps Mission

• Indian Union: Dominion status, freedom to determine international relations
• Post war Constituent assembly: Partly elected (from provincial assemblies through proportional representation), partly prince-nominated members to frame constitution
• Conditions for British acceptance of newly framed constitution
  • & Provinces could opt out & form separate union / constitution
  • Treaty required for power transfer b/w new constituent assembly and British
• Defence temporarily remains under British control + Governor General's power would remain intact

Departures from Past and Implications

• Provincial separation option → blueprint for partition

• Attempt to Resolve Impasse

  • Constitution-making fully Indian-controlled (not "mainly" as in August Offer)
  • Concrete assembly plan established
  • Commonwealth withdrawal permitted
  • Increased interim Indian administration

Why Cripps Mission Failed

• Congress rejected
  • Dominion status instead of independence
  • Princely state representation by nominees
  • Provincial secession rights → Against national unity
  • No immediate power transfer
• Muslim League opposed
  • Single Indian Union concept
  • Denied self-determination for Pakistan
• Churchill administration undermined Cripps' efforts
• Gandhi called scheme post-dated cheque
• Secession procedure poorly defined, requiring 60% legislative majority
• Cripps returned leaving frustrated and embittered Indian people

23. Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, and the INA

Quit India Movement

• July 14, 1942: Gandhi framed British withdrawal resolution after Cripps' failure
• CWC at Wardha accepted struggle against British

Why Start a Struggle Now

• Cripps Mission failure revealed unchanged British attitude toward Indian self-determination
• Economic hardships, commandeering of resources, possibility of scorched earth policies in eastern India against Japanese advance
• British defeats in Southeast Asia emboldened Indians, shattered colonial prestige
• Discriminatory evacuation policies (Black Road/White Road) exposed racial attitudes
• Condition masses for possible Japanese invasion

The 'Quit India' Resolution

• 1942

  • Congress authorized Gandhi to lead non-violent movement

  • August 8: Ratified at Gowalia Tank (Bombay) and demanded immediate British withdrawal

  • Called for free India to resist fascism, provisional government, civil disobedience

Gandhi's Instructions

• Instructions given at Gowalia Tank meeting but not officially issued
• Government servants: Declare allegiance to Congress without resigning
• Soldiers: Remain in army but refuse to fire on compatriots
• Students: Leave studies if confident
• Peasants: Pay rent to supportive zamindars, withhold from anti-government zamindars
• Princes: Support masses and accept people's sovereignty
• Princely states' people: Support ruler only if anti-government
• Gandhi's mantra: "Do or Die" - achieve free India or die trying

Movement Spread

• August 9: All top Congress leaders arrested, organizations (Congress Working Committee, All Indian Congress Committee, Provincial Congress Committee) banned
• Aruna Asaf Ali (1st mayor Delhi) presided over Congress committee session → hoisted flag
• Public attacked authority symbols, infrastructure sabotaged (bridges blown, railway tracks removed, telegraph lines cut)
• Strongest in United Provinces, Bihar; students and workers led protests

Underground Activity

• Multi-faction resistance network (Socialists, Forward Bloc, Gandhi followers)
• Key leaders: Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Biju Patnaik (CM → Odisha), Sucheta Kripalani (First woman CM of independent India → UP), Usha Mehta
• Usha Mehta started underground radio in Bombay
• Underground activity maintained morale, provided command line, distributed arms and ammunition

Parallel Governments

• Supported by businessmen, students, villagers, sympathetic officials

Extent of Mass Participation

• Youth → Students led movement from forefront
• Women → Active participants included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, Usha Mehta
• Workers → Conducted strikes, faced repression
• Peasants → Central to movement, targeted authority symbols without anti-zamindar violence
• Government officials → Lower-level police and administrators participated → eroded government loyalty
• Muslims → Provided shelter to underground activists, no communal clashes occurred
• Communists → Initially abstained → supported British after Nazi attack on Russia
• Muslim League → Opposed movement fearing Hindu oppression of minorities
• Hindu Mahasabha → Boycotted movement
• Princely states → Showed minimal response

Government Repression

• Severe measures: lathi-charges, tear-gas, firing; estimated 10,000 killed
• Press censored; military control of cities
• Collective village punishment (heavy fines, mass flogging)

Estimate

• Violence spread without leadership; movement centered in eastern provinces
• Students, workers, peasants formed backbone while elites remained loyal
• Established India couldn't be ruled without Indians' consent
• Placed independence as immediate agenda with unprecedented public heroism

Gandhi Fasts

• February 1943: Fast against state violence gained overwhelming support
• Three council members resigned; raised morale, exposed government brutality

March 23, 1943: Pakistan Day observed

Famine of 1943

• 1.5-3 million died in man-made Bengal famine
• Causes
  • Diverted foodstuffs for army
  • Stopped rice imports
  • Gross mismanagement
  • Deliberate profiteering
  • Belated rationing methods

Rajagopalachari Formula (1944)

• CR proposed Congress-League cooperation framework
• Provisions
  • Muslim League to support independence; join provisional government
  • Muslim-majority areas to decide on Pakistan through post-war plebiscite
  • Joint arrangements for defense/commerce if partition occurred
  • Required complete British power transfer
• Jinnah's response: Demanded two-nation theory acceptance, only Muslims to vote in plebiscite
• Congress position: Willing to cooperate for Indian Union integrity but not separate nation
• Hindu leaders under Vir Savarkar: Condemned CR Plan

Desai-Liaqat Pact

• Desai (Congress) and Liaqat (Muslim League) proposed interim government
• Equal Congress-League representation, 20% minority seats
• No settlement reached despite parity agreement

Wavell Plan

• 1945: Churchill government sought India solution as WWII in Europe ended
• Government motivations
  • Upcoming UK elections
  • Allied pressure for more Indian Cooperation in war
  • Redirecting Indian energies to profitable channels

Wavell Plan Proposals

• Executive Council
  • All Indians except Governor General and Commander in Chief
  • Parties to submit joint list of nominees to executive council; separate lists if no agreement
  • Council to function as interim government within 1935 Act framework (not responsible to Central Assembly)
  • Equal representation for Caste Hindus and Muslims in council
• Governor General: Retained veto power exercised on advice of ministers
• Future constitution negotiations possible after war

Why Wavell Plan Failed

Muslim League stand

• Demanded exclusive Muslim representation
• Feared reduction to one-third minority if other minorities joined Congress
• Sought two-thirds approval veto for Muslim-related decisions

Congress stand

• Rejected being reduced to purely caste Hindu party
• Insisted on right to nominate members from all communities

Wavell's Mistake

• Announced breakdown of talks, giving League a virtual veto → strengthened League's position, boosted muslim separatism, weakened Churchill's govt
• Boosted Muslim separatism and weakened Churchill's Conservative government

The Indian National Army and Subhas Bose

• Bose: militant nationalist, resigned Civil Services (1921) to join freedom struggle
• Rejected Gandhi's non-violence, sought independent path
• 1940
  • March: Organized Anti-Compromise Conference at Ramgarh (joint efffort of Forward Block + Kisan Sabha)
  • July: Arrested
• 1941
  • Escaped British custody, fled India seeking international support
  • Met Hitler in Germany, formed Mukti Sena with Indian POWs
  • Established Free India Centre in Berlin, coined Jai Hind slogan
• 1943: Reached Japan via submarine, took INA command from Rashbehari Bose

Origin and First Phase of INA

• Mohan Singh created army from Indian POWs in Malaya
• 40,000 men recruited by end of 1942
• Differences with Japanese led to Mohan Singh's arrest
• 1943:
  • July: Subhas Bose assumed INA leadership
  • October: Formed Provisional Government for Free India in Singapore
  • Declared war on Britain and US, recognized by Axis powers
  • Created women's Rani Jhansi Regiment
• 1944
  • January: INA headquarters shifted to Rangoon, soldiers were to march from here with war cry "Delhi Chalo"
  • March: INA crossed Burma border, reached Indian soil
  • April: INA flag hoisted on Indian mainland at Moirang (Manipur)
  • May: Japanese retreat ended liberation hopes
  • July: Bose addressed Gandhi as Father of the Nation
  • August: Japan surrendered, INA surrendered
• August 18, 1945: Bose reportedly died in Taiwan air crash
• INA trials sparked popular defense movement in India