3. Advent of the Europeans in India

Portugese

The quest for and Discovery of a Sea Route of a Sea Route in India

• Trade context
  • 7th century: Arab domination after Roman decline limited Europe-India direct trade
  • 1453: Ottoman conquest of Constantinople reinforced Muslim control of trade routes
  • Indian goods (spices, textiles, luxury items) reached Europe via Arab intermediaries
  • Europeans sought direct sea route to bypass Muslim monopolies
• European capabilities
  • 15th century: Renaissance exploration spirit coincided with naval technology advances
  • Agricultural improvements and prosperity increased demand for eastern goods
  • Venice/Genoa too small for major expeditions; northern Europeans backed Portugal/Spain
  • Genoese provided maritime expertise to Portuguese explorers
• Portuguese leadership

  • Portugal combined anti-Islamic stance with exploration ambitions

  • 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divided non-Christian world between Portugal/Spain

    • 

  • 1487: Dias rounded Cape of Good Hope

  • 1498: Portuguese reached India

From Trading to Ruling

Portuguese Generals

Vasco Da Gama

• Zamorin (Samuthiri), Hindu ruler of Calicut → Gave friendly reception → Not apprehensive about European intentions due to Calicut's entrepot status
• Arab traders apprehensive about Portuguese presence
• Sought monopoly of trade by excluding competitors

Pedro Alvarez Cabral

• 1500: Established factory at Calicut (Kozhikode)
• Conflict with locals: Portuguese deaths: Cabral retaliated against Arab ships
• Made treaties with rulers of Cochin and Cannanore

Vasco Da Gama Returns

• VDG returned in 1501
• Zamorin declines exclusion of Arabs ⇒ rupture between Zamorin and Vasco da Gama
• Factories in: Calicut, Cannanore, Cochin → fortified
• 

Francisco De Almeida

• Appointed governor of India in 1505 by king

• Mission: consolidate Portuguese position, destroy Muslim trade

• Targets: seize Aden, Ormuz, Malacca; build fortresses

• Faced opposition from Zamorin and Mameluke Sultan of Egypt

• 1507: Portuguese defeated by combined Egyptian-Gujarat navies

• 1508: Almeida avenged defeat by crushing both navies (Egypt + Gujarat)

• Implemented "Blue Water Policy" (cartaze system) → Merchant needed to purchase a permit (Cartaz)

• 

Alfonso De Alburquerque

• & Real founder of Portuguese power in East

• Secured strategic control of Indian Ocean with bases at key entrances

• Established strongholds in East Africa, Red Sea, Strait of Hormuz, Malabar, Strait of Malacca

  • 

• Implemented permit system for ships

• 1510

  • Built fort at Bhatkal (Uttara Kannada district) with permission of 11. Regional Kingdoms#Krishnadevaraya 1509–1529

  • Acquired Goa from Sultan of Bijapur

• & First European-controlled Indian territory since Alexander the Great

• Abolished sati practice

• Policy included persecution of Muslims

• Encouraged Portuguese men to marry Indian women

Nino De Cunha

• 1529: Became Portuguese Governor in India
• 1530: Shifted headquarters form Cochin to Goa: Chapter 3 - 5#^Acquired-Goa-From-Sultan-Of-Bijapur-1510
• 1535: Acquired Diu from 10. Mughal Empire#Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

Portuguese Gujarat Relations

• 1534: Bhadur Shah ceded Bassein Island during Mughal conflict
• 1536: Relations soured when Humayun withdrew
• 1537: Portuguese killed Bhadur Shah during negotiations

Portuguese State in India

• Controlled coastal areas within 50 years of Vasco da Gama's arrival
• Occupied 60 miles around Goa, four ports on west coast
• Established fortresses in south (Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, Calicut)
• Built settlements on east coast (San Thome, Nagapattinam, Hooghly)
• Maintained diplomatic relations with Indian kingdoms
• 1961: Portuguese closed factories when India recaptured Goa, Daman, Diu
• 

Portuguese Administration

• Viceroy as head with three-year term
• Vedor da Fazenda managed revenues and fleets
• Captains controlled fortresses with factors as assistants

Religious Policy

• Initially intolerant toward Muslims, tolerant toward Hindus
• Later persecuted Hindus after Inquisition in Goa

Lose Favour with the Mughals

• 1608: Captain William Hawkins reached Surat with letter from King James I
• Portuguese authorities failed to prevent Hawkins reaching Mughal court
• 1609: Jahangir gave Hawkins favorable reception, impressed by his Turki language skills; appointed Hawkins as mansabdar
• 1611: Hawkins left court, unable to counter Portuguese intrigues
• 1612: Battle of Swally: English ships Dragon and Osiander defeated Portuguese fleet, impressing Jahangir
• 1613: Portuguese captured Mughal ships, imprisoned Muslims, plundered cargo
• Shah Jahan permanently ended Portuguese court privileges

Capture of Hooghly

• 1579: Portuguese established trading post near Satgaon in Bengal, later monopolised salt/customs
• Portuguese conducted slave trade, seized Mumtaz Mahal's slave girls
• 1632: Shah Jahan ordered siege, captured Hooghly after three months

Reasons for decline of Portuguese

• 18th century: Portuguese lost commercial influence, some turned to piracy
• Powerful dynasties in Egypt/Persia/India
• Maratha expansion: 1739: Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein
• Religious conversion policies alienated locals
• Piracy and trade malpractices created hostility
• 1580-1581: Union with Spain dragged Portugal into Spain's wars
• Brazil discovery diverted colonising activities westward

Portuguese Legacy

• Introduced naval warfare with cannon to Indian Ocean
• Military innovations: infantry drilling system adopted by Indian armies
• Maritime technological advances: ship design, armaments
• Cultural contributions in silver work, architecture despite religious conflicts
• Crops introduced: Cashew nuts, Papaya, Pineapple, Chilies, Tomatoes and Potatoes.

Dutch

• Dutch rivalry with English (17th century) more bitter than with Portuguese
• Dutch East policy motivated by → revenge against Catholic Spain/Portugal, establishing East Indies monopoly
• First goal achieved through Portuguese decline, second led to English conflict

Dutch Settlements

• 
• Dutch captured Nagapatam from Portuguese, making it South India stronghold
• Dutch factories established across India
  • 1605: First factory in Masulipatnam (Andhra)
  • 1609: Pulicat (north of Madras)
  • Other key factories: Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Nagapatam (1658), Cochin (1663)
• Dutch trade commodities
  • Indigo (Yamuna valley)
  • Textiles/Silk (Bengal, Gujarat, Coromandel)
  • Saltpetre (Bihar)
  • Opium/Rice (Ganga valley)

Anglo Dutch Rivalry

• Commercial competition evolved into warfare
• 1623: Amboyna Massacre (Dutch killed 10 Englishmen, 9 Japanese)
• 1667: Compromise reached - British withdrew Indonesia claims, Dutch focused on Indonesia
• Dutch monopolised black pepper and spices

Dutch Decline in India

• Battle of Hooghly / Battle of Biderra / Battle of Chinsurah (1759 Bengal): English defeated Dutch, crushing their Indian ambitions

• Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-74) further weakened position

• Dutch primarily interested in trade, not empire-building

• Main commercial focus remained Indonesian Spice Islands

English

• 1600: Elizabeth I chartered East India Company with 15-year monopoly
• 
  • West Coast → Surat, Bombay
  • East coast → Madras, Masulipatnam → and then all clustered in WB

Progress of the English Company

• 1609: Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court but failed to establish Surat factory due to opposition from Portuguese
• 1611: English began trading at Masulipatnam, established factory by 1616
• 1612: Captain Thomas Best defeated Portuguese, impressing Jahangir
• 1613: Permission granted for factory at Surat, Agra, Ahmedabad, Broach (PYQ Modern History#Q1 2021)
• 1632: Golden Farman from Sultan of Golconda granted trading rights in the ports of Golconda for 500 pagodas yearly
• 1633: Factories established at Hariharpur and Balasore in eastern India
• 1639: Francis Day received permission from ruler of Chandragiri to build fortified factory at Madras (Fort St. George)

Foothold in Bengal

• 1651: Shah Shuja permitted English trade in Bengal for ₹3,000 annually
• Factories established at Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna, and Rajmahal
• 1682: William Hedges appealed to Shaista Khan over customs disputes
• 1686: Hooghly sacked by Mughals after hostilities erupted
• 1690: Job Charnock negotiated return to Sutanuti
• 1691: Imperial farman issued allowing continued trade
• 1698: English purchased zamindari rights to Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata for ₹1,200
• & 1700: Fort William established as eastern presidency headquarters

Consolidation of Power

• 1662: Bombay received as dowry from Portuguese, transferred to Company in 1668

• 1687: Western Presidency headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay

• 1708: Rival companies merged to form 'United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies'

• 1717: Farrukhsiyar's farmans granted valuable privileges in Bengal, Gujarat and Hyderabad

  • Company's Magna Carta
  • Duty exemptions, permission to issue dastaks (passes) for transportation of goods, and currency recognition

• This East India Company (1708-1873) established British political power in India

French

Foundation of French Centres in India

• French arrived late to Indian trade despite 16th century interest
• 1667: François Caron established factory in Surat
• 1669: Mercara founded factory in Masulipatnam with Sultan of Golconda's patent
• 1673: French obtained permission for Chandernagore township near Calcutta from Shaista Khan
• 1673-74: Pondicherry founded, became French stronghold under François Martin
• Additional factories established in Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, Qasim Bazar

Early Setbacks

• Dutch-French war damaged French position
• 1693: Dutch captured Pondicherry
• 1697: Treaty of Ryswick restored Pondicherry to French
• War of Spanish Succession forced abandonment of factories in Surat, Masulipatnam, Bantam

Reorganisation and Revival

• 1720: Company reorganised as "Perpetual Company of Indies"
• Governors Lenoir and Dumas (1720-1742) enhanced French position

Anglo-French Struggle: Carnatic Wars

• Background: European trading powers drawn into Indian politics

First Carnatic War

• 1740-1748 Starts from 1740 → 8y
• Extension of Austrian War of Succession
• 1746: French seized Madras after English navy provoked France
• 1748: Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle returned Madras to English
• Battle of St. Thome
  • French vs Anwaruddin (Nawab of Carnatic)
  • Eye opener for Europeans → Small disciplined army could defeat large Indian army

Second Carnatic War

• 1749-1754 +1 → 5y
• Dupleix exploited local succession disputes
• French supported Muzaffar Jang (Hyderabad) + Chanda Sahib (Carnatic)
• English backed Nasir Jang (Hyderabad) + Anwaruddin (Carnatic)
• 1749: Battle of Ambur (Chanda Sahib + Muzzafar Jang + French vs Anwaruddin) → Anwaruddin killed
• 1751: Robert Clive's capture of Arcot diverted Chanda Sahib
• 1752: Chanda Sahib executed after surrender
• 1754: Dupleix recalled, Godeheu (successor of Dupleix) negotiated treaty with English
• & Treaty established non-interference in local politics
• Demonstrated Indian authority's growing dependence on European support

Third Carnatic War

• 1758-1763 +4 → 5y
• Background: Part of Seven Years' War (1756-63) in Europe, Britain and France on opposite sides
• Course in India
  • 1758: French initially captured English forts at St. David and Vizianagaram
  • English became offensive, inflicted heavy losses on French fleet under D'Ache at Masulipatnam
  • Battle of Wandiwash (January 22, 1760): Decisive English victory, English under Coote defeated French forces
• Outcome
  • Pondicherry surrendered (1761), Treaty of Paris (1763) ended French political influence
  • English became supreme European power in India with no rivals

Dupleix in India

• 1697-1754
• Administrative achievements: Balanced Pondicherry finances despite opposition, enhanced fortifications, established commercial emporium
• Diplomatic innovations: First European interfering in Indian politics, created subsidiary alliance system, placed French army in Hyderabad
• Downfall: Recalled 1754 after military defeats, company blamed financial losses on his policies

Cause of English Success and French Failure

Why English Succeeded

• Corporate structure: Shareholder-controlled English company vs state-run French company with guaranteed dividends
• Naval dominance: Advanced fleet with superior mobility (most advanced but not largest) defeated Portuguese and French forces
• Military advantages: Disciplined soldiers, strategic commanders, technological superiority enabled smaller forces to defeat larger armies
• Economic foundations: Early Industrial Revolution (textiles, metallurgy, steam power) created production advantages
• Political stability: Consistent governance vs French revolution, Napoleonic wars, Dutch bankruptcy
• Financial innovation: Debt market utilisation through Bank of England funded military campaigns
• Cultural approach: Less religious zealotry made British rule more acceptable to Indian subjects

4. India on the Eve of British Conquest

Decline of Mughal Empire (18th century)

• Aurangzeb's reign (1658-1707) marked beginning of Mughal decline
• Aurangzeb's misguided policies weakened state stability
• Post-Aurangzeb decline accelerated due to succession wars and weak rulers

Mughal Rulers after Aurangzeb

Jahandar Shah initiated Jizya abolition but Farrukhsiyar was the one under whose reign it was implemented

External Challenges to Mughals

• Weak borders allowed northwestern invasions
• Nadir Shah (Persian) invaded 1738-1739, defeated Mughals at Karnal, looted Delhi
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan) invaded multiple times (1748-1767)
• Chapter 3 - 5#^Third-Battle-of-Panipat

• First Battle (1526): Babur vs Ibrahim Lodhi, established Mughal Empire
• Second Battle (1556): Akbar vs Hemu, continued Mughal rule
• Third Battle (1761): Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Abdali, ended Maratha ambitions of ruling over India

• Strategic location: Accessible battlefield near Delhi, flat ground suitable for warfare, enroute Grand Trunk Road, short monsoon, availability of artisans / smiths for warfare materials

Cause of Decline of Mughal Empire

• Two Views on Mughal Decline
  • Empire-related: Internal structural weaknesses
  • Region-related: Regional instability and turmoil
  • Accelerated after Aurangzeb's death (1707)

Major Factors Contributing to Decline

• Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
  • Zamindars: hereditary landowners (rais, rajas, thakurs, khuts, desmukhs) with revenue collection role
  • Maintained soldiers, occupied important administrative position
  • During Aurangzeb's reign, power of zamindars increased significantly
  • Local zamindars helped nobility exploit empire weakness, carved independent kingdoms
• Jagirdari Crisis
  • Nobility comprised jagirdars (assigned lands) and mansabdars (appointed administrators)
  • Divisiveness among nobility based on religion, homeland, tribe
  • Mutual rivalry, jealousy, power contests reduced empire prestige
• Rise of Regional Aspirations
  • Aurangzeb's reign: rebellions by Jats, Sikhs, Marathas seeking own kingdoms
  • Their continuous struggle weakened empire considerably
  • Aurangzeb and Bahadur Shah I's attempts to suppress Rajputs backfired
  • Marathas expanded from Maharashtra to collecting sardeshmukhi and chauth throughout India
  • By 1740, Marathas controlled Gujarat, Malwa, Bundelkhand
    • 

Scholarly Perspectives on Decline

• Satish Chandra: Medieval economic stagnation, trade/industry decline, scientific underdevelopment, nobility's factional struggles
• Irfan Habib: Economic and administrative causes, not religious reaction
• William Irvine: Military inefficiency as principal cause
• Sidney Owen: Aurangzeb's policies (reimposing jizya), alienating Hindu subjects
• J.N. Sarkar: "Rottenness at core" - military/political helplessness, corrupt nobles

Rise of Regional States

• Three categories of states emerged after Mughal Empire's decline
• Successor States
  • Mughal provinces that broke away
  • Maintained Mughal ruler's sovereignty while establishing hereditary authority
  • Examples: Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad
• Independent Kingdoms
  • States formed through destabilisation of Mughal control
  • Examples: Mysore and Rajput states
• New States
  • Established by rebels against Mughal empire
  • Examples: Maratha, Sikh, Jat states

Major Regional Powers

Types of Regional Powers

• Successor States: Former Mughal provinces establishing independent hereditary authority without challenging Mughal sovereignty
• Independent Kingdoms: States declaring independence during Mughal control destabilisation, previously having considerable autonomy
• Rebel States: Established by rebels against Mughal empire

Nature of Regional States

• Political Characteristics
  • Provincial systems recognized Mughal emperor as supreme authority
  • Functioned with local elite (zamindars, merchants, chieftains) support but lacked sound administration
• Limitations and Challenges
  • Failed to develop sound financial/administrative/military systems
  • Backward in science and technology
  • Constant warfare with neighboring powers, none could dominate
  • Strong enough to challenge Mughal power but unable to establish all-India polity
• Economic Factors
  • Jagirdari crisis intensified as agricultural income declined
  • Contenders for power multiplied
  • Foreign trade prospered while rest of economy stagnated

Socio Economic Conditions in 18th-century India

Economic Contrasts

• Extreme wealth-poverty contrast; masses better off than under later British rule
• Self-sufficient in handicrafts/agriculture with favorable trade balance → known as Sink of Precious Metals
• Major exports
  • Cotton textiles, raw silk, silk fabrics
  • Hardware
  • Opium, Indigo, Saltpetre
  • Rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, other spices
  • Precious stones
  • Drugs
• Imports
  • Persian Gulf: pearls, silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, rose water
  • Arabia: coffee, gold, drugs, honey
  • China: tea, sugar, porcelain, silk
  • Tibet: gold, musk, woollen cloth
  • Africa: ivory, drugs
  • Europe: woollen cloth, metals (copper, iron, lead), paper

Agricultural System

• Agriculture sustained society despite technical backwardness
• Peasants exploited by state, zamindars, jagirdars

Manufacturing and Trade

• Shipbuilding flourished in coastal regions, Leading regions: Maharashtra, Andhra, Bengal
• Self-sufficient handicraft production

Education

• Traditional system lagging behind West; focused on literature, law, religion, philosophy
• Elementary education in pathshalas (Hindu) and maktabs (Muslim); limited to basics
• Higher education in Chatuspathis/Tols
• Sanskrit education centers → Kasi (Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila), Nadia, Utkala
• Madrasahs taught Persian/Arabic; Azimabad (Patna) was Persian education center

Social Structure

• Society showed cultural unity yet divided by caste, religion, region, language
• Hindu varnas and sub-castes determined social position and profession
• Muslims divided between sharif (nobles, scholars) and ajlaf (lower-class)
• Panchayats enforced caste regulations; conversions occurred but caste remained divisive

Women's Status

• Patriarchal system restricted women's freedom; upper-class homebound, lower-class worked
• Oppressive practices: purdah, sati, child marriage, dowry, polygamy
• Widow conditions especially harsh; reform attempts for widow remarriage failed

Slavery

• Economic distress drove people to sell offspring; domestic slavery common
• Indian slaves treated better than European counterparts; could marry; offsprings were free
• European arrival intensified slave trade to American/European markets

Cultural Developments

• Talented artists sought patronage at new state courts (Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Patna, Kashmir)
• Notable constructions: Bara Imambara (Lucknow, 1784), Jaipur pink city, five astronomical observatories by Sawai Jai Singh
• Jai Singh created Zij Muhammad-shahi astronomical timetables
• Painting: Rajputana and Kangra schools gained prominence
• Literature: Urdu growth produced poets Mir, Sauda, Nazir, Ghalib; Malayalam flourished under Travancore; Tamil enriched by sittar poetry
• Major works: Heer Ranjha (Punjabi) by Waris Shah, Risalo (Sindhi) by Shah Abdul Latif

5. Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India

British Imperial History

• Divided into two phases
• First empire: Atlantic-focused (America, West Indies)
• Second empire: Post-1783 (Peace of Paris), East-focused (Asia, Africa)

Debate on British Conquest

• Two opposing schools
  • Accidental conquest theory → British came to trade without territorial ambitions
  • Intentional conquest theory → British had clear plan to establish empire
• Motivating factors → quick profits, personal ambitions, rivalries, political developments in Europe
• 1798-1818 → British motives became consciously imperialistic

British Period in India Timeline Debates

• Various proposed starting points
  • 1740: Anglo-French struggle
  • 1757: Battle of Plassey
  • 1761: Third Battle of Panipat
• Political transformation took approximately 80 years

Causes of British Success in India

• Superior military technology: muskets and cannons with better speed and range
• Better military discipline and regular salary system ensuring loyalty
• Civil discipline and fair selection system based on reliability and skill
• Brilliant leadership (Clive, Hastings, Wellesley) with strong second-line leaders
• Strong financial backing from Company's trade profits
• Nationalist pride contrasting with divided Indian political landscape

British Conquest of Bengal

Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest

• Richest Mughal province including present Bangladesh, Bihar, Odisha

• Exports → saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, silk, cotton textiles

• English East India Company established factories in Balasore, Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna, Dacca (1690s)

• 1699 - 1727: Murshid Quli Khan → Bengal's Dewan

• 1727 - 1756: Alivardi Khan ruled, stopped Mughal tributes

  • Alivardi Khan ruled 15 years, fought Marathas, allowed English entrenchment
  • Died April 1756, succeeded by grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah

• Siraj-ud-Daulah → Young ruler (20) with rival factions in court + Faced threats from English commercial expansion

Battle of Plassey

• Company misused trade privileges, affecting nawab's finances
• Siraj attacked English at Calcutta
• Robert Clive formed secret alliance with Mir Jafar
• Battle fought June 23, 1757 → Siraj's 50,000 troops defeated by Clive's small force

Significance of Battle of Plassey

• Outcome: Mir Jafar became Bengal Nawab, granted English money and 24 parganas
• Significance: Established British rule, military supremacy in Bengal, ousted French
• Power dynamics: Control to Clive, Jafar dependent on English support

Plassey Plunder

• Immediately after the war, the English army and navy received £275,000 each.
• Between 1757 and 1760, the Company received ₹22.5 million from Mir Jafar, and Clive himself got a personal jagir worth £34,567 in 1759
• Mir Jafar was not able to satisfy the financial demands of Clive $\stackrel{\text{Replaced by}}{\to }$ Mir Kasim who also failed

Mir Kasim and Treaty of 1760

• Mir Jafar irritated by Clive's interference, conspired with Dutch
• 1759: Dutch defeated at Bedara / Biderra (Chapter 3 - 5#^Battle-Of-Hooghly)
• Jafar's treachery and payment failures annoyed English
• Treaty terms
  • Company received Burdwan, Midnapur, Chittagong districts
  • Company got half share in Sylhet chunam trade
  • Mir Kasim to pay outstanding dues, ₹ 5L for southern India wars
  • Mutual enemies/friends agreement, no tenant settlement in each other's lands
• Mir Jafar resigned in favour of Mir Kasim

Mir Kasim's Initiatives

• Shifted capital to Munger (away from Calcutta)
• Reorganised administration and army

Battle of Buxar

• Prelude
  • Mir Kasim defied Company's puppet ruler expectations
  • Tensions from
    • Company's dastak misuse
    • Duty exemptions → Mir Kasim wanted to abolish duties altogether; British demanded preferential treatment
    • Unfair trade practices
    • Mir Kasim fled to Awadh, allied with Nawab of Awadh (Shuja-ud-Daulah) and Mughal Emperor (Shah Alam II)
• The Battle
  • 1764: Combined armies of Mir Kasim, Nawab of Awadh, Shah Alam II defeated by English forces (led by Hector Munro) at Buxar
  • & Battle significance: Not just Nawab but Mughal Emperor defeated
  • Victory established English as major power in northern India

Treaty of Allahabad 1765

• Robert Clive concluded treaties with Nawab of Awadh and Mughal Emperor
• Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula agreed to:
  • Surrender Allahabad and Kara to Shah Alam II
  • Pay ₹50 lakh war indemnity
  • Give Balwant Singh full possession of Banaras estate
• Shah Alam II agreed to
  • Reside at Allahabad under Company protection
  • Issue farman granting diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa
• Clive avoided annexing Awadh to create buffer state
• Emperor's farman legalised Company's political gains in Bengal
• Mir Kasim died in poverty (1777)

Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72)

• Company became real masters of Bengal

• & Dual system

  • Company controlled diwani (revenue collection and control over civil justice). Appointed Naib Diwan to exercise these functions on its behalf
  • Nawab controlled nizamat (police) (🧠 N controls N i.e Nawab controls Nizamat)

• System advantaged Company: Puppet ruler facade maintained while Company held real power

• 1772:

  • System led to administrative breakdown
  • British#Warren Hastings (1772-1785) abolished dual system

Mysore's Resistance to the Company

• 1565: The Wodevar/Mysore Dynasty emerged after Vijayanagara's fall
• 1612: Hindu Wodevar kingdom established in Mysore region
• Late 18th century: Mysore became formidable under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan
• English threatened by Mysore's French alliance and control of Malabar Coast trade
• Mysore threatened English control of Madras

Rise of Haidar Ali

• Rose from horseman to ruler (1761)
• Modernised army with French help → Established arms factory at Dindigul (TN)
• Captured territories (1761-63), defeated Poligars
• Lost to Marathas (1764-71) but recovered territories (1774-76)

Anglo Mysore Wars

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

• Background: British confidence after Bengal success led to treaty with Nizam of Hyderabad (1766), acquiring Northern Circars (coastal Andhra Pradesh) Start in 1767; 2Y
• Haidar Ali's existing disputes with Nawab of Arcot and Marathas complicated regional politics
• Initial alliance of British, Nizam, and Marathas against Haidar collapsed when Haidar diplomatically turned Marathas neutral and Nizam into ally
• War continued inconclusively for 18 months until Haidar's strategic move to Madras gates created panic
• Treaty of Madras (April 1769): Humiliating for British, Both sides restored territories captured during war, Defensive clause → Both parties agreed to help each other

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

• Background +11Y, 4Y
  • 1771: British violated Treaty of Madras by not supporting Haidar when attacked by Marathas
  • Haidar found French more reliable allies; American Revolution made French-Indian alliances concerning to British
  • British attempt to capture French-held Mahe (Malabar Coast, Kerala) triggered Haidar's response as violation of his sovereignty
• 1781
  • Haidar formed coalition with Marathas and Nizam, defeated British under Colonel Baillie
  • English regrouped, detached Marathas and Nizam from Haidar's side, defeated Haidar at Porto Novo (modern day Parangipettai, coastal town in TN)
• 1782: Haidar died in December; Tipu Sultan continued war for another year without decisive outcome
• 1784: Treaty of Mangalore signed in March, both sides returned to pre-war territorial status quo

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

+6Y, 2Y

• 1790: Tipu declared war in April against Travancore (British ally) over territorial rights dispute
• 1790: Initial British campaign → unsuccessful
• 1791: British#Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793, 1805) personally took command, captured Bangalore and advanced toward Seringapatam
• British forces, supported by Marathas and Nizam, twice threatened Seringapatam
• 1792: Treaty of Seringapatam forced Tipu to surrender half his territories, pay substantial indemnity of ₹ 3 crore
• Tipu's sons taken as hostages until initial payment made; remaining amount to be paid in instalments

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

+7Y

• 1792-1799: Recovery period for both sides; Tipu fulfilled treaty terms and secured sons' release
• 1796: Tipu declared himself sultan after Wodeyar's death, sought to avenge earlier defeat
• 1798: Lord Wellesley became governor-general, grew concerned about Tipu's French connections
• British accused Tipu of plotting with regional powers and sending emissaries to foreign nations
• 1799: War lasted from April 17 to May 4, ended with fall of Seringapatam and Tipu's death in battle
• Mysore dismembered: territories distributed among British, Marathas, and Nizam
• Wodeyar dynasty restored under British subsidiary alliance system

Anglo Maratha Struggle for Supremacy

Rise of the Marathas

• Marathas gained power as Mughal Empire declined, controlling large portions of country
• By mid-18th century, aspired to rule North Indian empire and influenced Mughal court
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali, but regrouped within a decade
• Bajirao I (1720-1740): Greatest of all Peshwas, Created confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs
• Maratha confederacy structure: Each family assigned sphere of influence under senapati
• Prominent families
  • Gaekwad (Baroda)
  • Bhonsle (Nagpur)
  • Holkars (Indore)
  • Sindhias (Gwalior)
  • Peshwa (Poona)
• Madhavrao I's death in 1772 weakened Peshwa control over confederacy
• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82): Chiefs united against British but often quarrelled

Entry of the English Into Maratha Politics

• Three clashes between Marathas and English (late 18th-early 19th century)
• English victory due to inordinate ambition and divided Maratha leadership
• English in Bombay sought government like Clive's in Bengal
• Succession disputes provided opportunity for English intervention

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)

• Background 1775; 7Y

  • 1772: Narayanrao succeeded Madhavrao, assassinated by uncle Raghunathrao
  • 1774: Sawai Madhavrao born posthumously, Barbhai (12 Maratha chiefs) council formed regency under Nana Phadnavis to rule as regents for Sawai Madhavrao

• Treaties of Surat and Purandhar

  • 1775: Raghunathrao sought English help, signed Treaty of Surat

    • Treaty ceded territories of Salsette and Bassein to English with revenue portion
    • English promised 2,500 soldiers to Raghunathrao
    • British Calcutta Council condemned Treaty of Surat, sent Colonel Upton to Pune

  • 1776: Treaty of Purandhar annulled Surat treaty, denounced Raghunathrao

  • 1777: Nana Phadnavis violated Calcutta Council agreement by granting French port

  • English retaliated by sending force toward Pune

• Course of War

  • Marathas outnumbered English but faced ammunition disadvantage

  • Mahadji Scindia trapped English in mountain passes near Talegaon

  • Scorched earth tactics cut English food/water supplies

  • 1779: Surrounded English surrendered, signed Treaty of Wadgaon

  • Treaty reversed all English territorial gains since 1775

• Treaty of Salbai (1782)

  • British#Warren Hastings (1772-1785) rejected Chapter 3 - 5#^Treaty-Of-Wadgaon, recaptured Ahmednagar, Bassein
  • Feb 1781: English under General Camac defeated Scindia at Sipri
  • 1782: Treaty of Salbai signed
  • Key provisions
    • Salsette remains with English
    • Territories conquered since Purandhar returned to Marathas
    • Fateh Singh Gaekwad maintains pre-war territory
    • No English support for Raghunathrao
    • Haidar Ali returns territory taken from English
    • Peshwa not to support other European nations

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

• Background +21; 2Y

  • 1795: Bajirao II became Peshwa after Madhavrao Narayan's (→ Chapter 3 - 5#^Sawai-Madhavrao) suicide
  • 1800: Nana Phadnavis's death created power vacuum

• Course of War

  • 1801: Peshwa (Bajirao II) murdered Jaswantrao Holkar's brother
  • 1802
    • Jaswant defeated combined armies of Scindia and Bajirao II
    • Bajirao II fled to Bassein, signed treaty with English

• Treaty of Bassein (1802)

  • Peshwa accepted 6,000 British troops with artillery in his territories
  • Ceded territories yielding ₹26 lakh income
  • Surrendered Surat, gave up claims on Nizam's dominions
  • Accepted Company's arbitration in disputes with Nizam/Gaekwad
  • No Europeans of nations at war with English in employment
  • Relations with other states subject to English control

• Reduced to Vassalage

  • Scindia and Bhonsle attempted to save Maratha independence
  • Resistance crushed by Wellesley

• 1803

  • Treaty of Deogaon (Bhonsle)
  • Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (Scindia)

• 1806: Treaty of Rajpurghat with Holkar

• British gained strategic military positions across Maratha territory, establishing foundation for Indian control

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)

• Background +12, 2Y
  • 1813: Charter Act ended Company's China trade monopoly, creating market needs
  • Unemployed Pindari mercenaries began plundering Company territories
  • Marathas viewed anti-Pindari actions as sovereignty violation
  • 1817: Bajirao II rallied Maratha chiefs against British
• War Events
  • Peshwa, Appa Sahib, Holkar attacked British positions
  • Marathas weakened by administrative inefficiency
  • British prevented Peshwa from uniting confederacy
• Results
  • Peshwa defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, Holkar at Mahidpur
  • Treaties signed
    • 
    • 1817
      • Peshwa → Treaty of Poona
      • Scindia → Treaty of Gwalior
    • 1818
      • Holkar → Treaty of Mandasor
      • Peshwa surrendered, confederacy dissolved
  • Peshwaship abolished, Bajirao II became British retainer

Maratha Defeat Factors

• Inept Leadership: Maratha state despotic, later Maratha leaders (Bajirao II, Daulatrao Scindia, Jaswantrao Holkar) worthless compared to English officials
• Defective Nature of Maratha State: Cohesion not organic but artificial, no well-thought organization or unification
• Loose Political Set-up: Loose confederation under Chhatrapati then Peshwa, powerful chiefs carved semi-independent kingdoms
• Inferior Military System: Marathas inferior in organization, weaponry, discipline, leadership
• Unstable Economic Policy: No stable economy, industries or foreign trade
• Superior English Diplomacy: English better at finding allies and isolating enemies
• Progressive English Outlook: English rejuvenated by Renaissance and scientific innovations while Marathas remained in medievalism
• & English attacked a "divided house" that crumbled after a few pushes

Conquest of Sindh

• Early 19th century: English showed interest in Sindh, enjoyed trade facilities authorized by Mughal Emperor's farman (1630)
• Farman provided English privileges in Sindh ports, enjoyed elsewhere

Rise of Talpuras Amirs

• 
• 18th century: Kallora chiefs ruled Sindh
• 1738-1775: English factory at Thatta established via Ghulam Shah's parwana, closed by Sarfraz Khan
• 1770s-1783: Talpuras (Baluch tribe) → excellent soldiers → established control under Mir Fath Ali Khan
• 1799: Durrani monarch confirmed Mir Fath's claims
• 1800: Char Yar divided kingdom among brothers after Mir Fath's death
• Amirs conquered territories from Jodhpur Raja, acquired Karachi, Shaikarpur, Bukkar

Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh

• Late 18th century belief: Napoleon conspiring with Tipu Sultan against India
• Lord Wellesley revived commercial relations to counter French - Tipu - Shah Zaman alliance
• 1800
  • Negotiations with Fath Ali Khan failed due to Tipu's influence and local traders' jealousy
  • British agent ordered to quit Sindh within ten days
  • British Company quietly suffered insult

Treaty of Eternal Friendship 1809

• Napoleon's Tilsit alliance with Alexander I threatened India invasion
• British sent delegations to Lahore, Kabul, Tehran seeking alliances
• & Amirs agreed to treaty → First every treaty with English
  • Both sides excluded French from Sindh, exchanged agents
  • 1820: Treaty renewed, excluded Americans

Treaty of 1832

• Bentinck sent Pottinger (political agent) to secure Sindh-Amirs treaty
• English gained trade passage rights through Sindh/Indus
• Restrictions: no warships, no settlement, passports required
• Amirs retained tariff control, no military tolls imposed
• Joint Amirs - Jodhpur action against Kachch robbers
• Previous treaties reaffirmed with mutual respect clause

Lord Auckland and Sindh

• 1836
  • Lord Auckland became Governor General, viewed Sindh as buffer against Russian invasion
  • Ranjit Singh captured Rojhan (Punjab, Pakistan), British signed new treaty with Amirs offering protection against Ranjit Singh
  • Company troops stationed in capital at Amir's expense or concessions to English
• 1838
  • Amirs signed treaty allowing British intervention, resident presence
  • Sindh became protectorate

Tripartite Treaty of 1838

• British persuaded Ranjit Singh to sign tripartite treaty allowing British mediation with Amirs
• Emperor Shah Shuja surrendered sovereign rights on Sindh for tribute payment

Sindh Accepts Subsidiary Alliance 1839

• Amirs accepted Subsidiary Alliance under threat of superior force
• Overturned 1832 ban on English troop movement
• Amirs paid Rs 3 lakh annually for British forces at Shikarpur/Bukkar
• Required Karachi storage facility, Indus toll abolition
• Restricted foreign diplomacy, mandated military support for Afghan campaign

Capitulation of Sindh

• 1839-1842: Sindh forced to host unpopular First Anglo-Afghan War
• Amirs falsely accused of treason despite treaty compliance
• New treaty demanded provincial cession, steamer fuel, end to coin minting
• 1843: British exploited succession dispute, crushed revolt
• Amirs exiled, Sindh annexed under Charles Napier's governorship

Criticisms of the Conquest

• Historians condemn British acquisition of Sindh as deliberately manufactured
• English annexed Sindh to compensate for prestige loss in First Afghan War

Conquest of Punjab

Consolidation of Punjab under Sikhs

• After Guru Gobind Singh's death, Sikhs divided into Bandai (Liberal) and Tat Khalsa (Orthodox)
• 1721: Rift ended under Bhai Mani Singh's influence
• 1784: Kapur Singh Faizullapuria organized Sikhs under Dal Khalsa. Divided into
  • Buddha Dal: Veterans
  • Taruna Dal: Youth
• 1763-1773: Misls (democratic military brotherhoods) emerged during Mughal decline
  • Area under rule
    • 
    • East: Saharanpur
    • West: Attock
    • North: Mountains
    • South: Multan

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• 1780: Ranjit Singh born, inherited Sukarchakiya misl at age 12, followed policy of Blood and Iron
• 1799: Appointed Lahore governor by Afghan ruler
• 1805: Acquired Jammu and Kashmir, Controlled both Lahore and Amritsar, establishing Punjab dominance

Ranjit Singh and the English

• 1807
  • Metcalfe mission to Lahore; Singh offered alliance if English remained neutral in Sikh-Afghan conflicts
  • Ranjit sought recognition as Punjab sovereign; Negotiations failed as political scenario changed
• 1809: Treaty of Amritsar signed as Napoleonic threat receded

Treaty of Amritsar Significance

• Checked Ranjit Singh's ambition to extend rule over entire Sikh nation
• Established Sutlej river as boundary for his dominions
• Redirected his energies westward: captured Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), Peshawar (1834)
• 1838: Political compulsions forced Tripartite Treaty with English
• Granted British army passage through territories to attack Dost Muhammad

Ranjit Singh's Relations with Company (1809-1839)

• Showed former's weak position
• Failed to organize coalition of Indian princes or maintain power balance
• Died June 1839, beginning empire's decline

Punjab after Ranjit Singh

• 1839: Kharak Singh's (son of Ranjit Singh) ineffective reign ended with his death; heir Nau Nihal Singh died same day
• Court factions created anarchy; Sikh army weakened by dead generals, unpaid troops, poor officers
• British troops allowed passage through Punjab, causing economic disruption (passage strained economic resources)
• Succession crisis: Sher Singh murdered (1843), minor Dalip Singh installed with regents
• 1844-1845: Rapid turnover of ministers through murder/execution (Hira Singh Dogra, Jawahar Singh)
• Lal Singh became wazir, Teja Singh army commander

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)

• Causes: Sikh army crossing River Sutlej (December 11, 1845), providing British justification to declare war
• Course of War
  • Began December 1845, British (20k-30k troops) versus Sikhs (50k troops under Lal Singh)
  • Lal Singh and Teja Singh's treachery led to five Sikh defeats → Mudki, Ferozeshah, Buddlewal, Aliwal, Sobraon
    • 
• 1846: Lahore fell

Treaty of Lahore (March 8, 1846)

• War indemnity: 1+ crore rupees to British
• Jalandhar Doab (between Beas and Sutlej) annexed to British
• British resident established at Lahore under Henry Lawrence
• Sikh army reduced
• Daleep Singh recognized as ruler under Rani Jindan as regent, Lal Singh as wazir
• Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh (75 lakh rupees) when Sikhs couldn't pay full indemnity

Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846)

• Signed after Sikhs rebelled over Kashmir issue
• Rani Jindan removed as regent
• Council of regency established: 8 Sikh sardars (nobles) presided over by English Resident Henry Lawrence

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)

• Causes
  • Humiliating treaties (Lahore + Bhairowal)
  • Mistreatment of Rani Jindan
  • Dewan Mulraj:
    • Governor of Multan
    • British tried to transfer power to new governor ⇒ Muraj revolted
    • Mulraj murdered two English officers, Sher Singh joined revolt leading to mass uprising
  • Lord Dalhousie used this pretext to annex Punjab
• Course of War: Three key battles
  • Ramnagar
  • Chillianwala (January 1849)
  • Gujarat (February 21, 1849): Final Battle
• Results
  • 1849: Sikh army and Sher Singh surrendered
  • Punjab annexed to British India
  • Three-member board established to govern Punjab
  • 1853: Board nullified, Punjab placed under chief commissioner

British Paramountcy Expansion (1757-1857)

• Two methods
  • Conquest / War
  • Diplomacy / Administrative mechanisms
• Three key policies
  • Ring - Fence
  • Subsidiary alliance
  • Doctrine of lapse

Ring-Fence Policy

• Under British#Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
• Created buffer zones protecting Company frontiers against Afghans, Marathas, Mysore, Hyderabad
• States (Awadh) received military assistance but maintained Company-organized forces
• Reduced Indian states to dependency

Subsidiary Alliance

• Under British#Lord Wellesley 1798 - 1805

• Allied states accepted permanent British force, paid subsidy, hosted Resident

• Prohibited independent foreign relations and non-British European employment

• Four implementation stages

  • First: Company offered military help to friendly state
  • Second: Common cause with state using combined forces
  • Third: Indian ally paid for British-trained forces for protection
  • Fourth: State ceded territories as payment

• Major states accepting

  • Hyderabad (1798)
  • Mysore (1799)
  • Awadh (1801)
  • Marathas (1818)

• Consequences: rulers lost independence, revenue, effective governance

Doctrine of Lapse

• Adopted sons could inherit private property but not state

• British determined succession or annexation

• British#Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) aggressively implemented

• States annexed

  • Satara (1848)
  • Jhansi and Nagpur (1854)
  • Awadh (1856)

• Dalhousie annexed quarter million square miles, completing British expansion

Relations of British India with Neighbouring Countries

Anglo-Bhutanese Relations

• 1826: British occupation of Assam brought close contact with Bhutan
• Bhutanese raids into Assam and Bengal territories caused tensions
• 1863-64: Bad treatment of Elgin's envoy and imposed treaty led to British annexation of passes
• 1865: Bhutanese forced to surrender passes for annual subsidy
• Surrendered districts became productive tea gardens

Anglo-Nepalese Relations

• 
• 1760: Gorkhas gained control from Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon
• 1801: English annexed Gorakhpur, bringing boundaries together
• 1813-23: Conflict began with Gorkhas' capture of Butwal and Sheoraj
• 1816: Treaty of Sagauli (favoured British)
  • Nepal accepted British Resident
  • Ceded territories
    • Garhwal
    • Kumaon
    • Terai
  • Withdrew from Sikkim
  • British gained Himalayan access, trade routes to Central Asia, hill stations, Gorkha soldiers

Anglo-Burmese Relations

• Early 19th century: Burma's westward expansion conflicted with British interests
• British motivated by forest resources, markets, checking French ambitions
• Three Anglo-Burmese Wars led to Burma's annexation by 1885

First Burma War (1824-26)

• Burmese expansion + Occupation of Arakan and Manipur → threatened British territories
• 1824: British occupied Rangoon and within 72 km of capital at Ava
• 1826: Treaty of Yandabo
  • Required Burma to pay compensation
  • Cede provinces → Arakan and Tenasserim
  • Abandon claims → Assam, Cachar, Jaintia
  • Recognise Manipur as independent state
  • Accept British Resident

Second Burma War (1852)

• Driven by commercial interests → British wanted hold of timber resources of upper Burma
• British occupied Pegu (coastal province of Burma)
• British overcame intense guerrilla resistance

Third Burma War (1885)

• King Thibaw's hostility and negotiations with rival powers led to annexation
• 1885: Invasion of Burma by British under Dufferin; Final annexation
• Post-WWI: Burmese nationalist movement joined with Indian National Congress
• 1935: Burma separated from India
• 1948: Burma gained independence under Aung San

Anglo-Tibetan Relations

• Tibet: Buddhist theocracy under ineffective Chinese suzerainty
• Curzon alarmed by Russian influence, sent Younghusband mission (1904)
• Treaty of Lhasa (1904)
  • Tibet would pay indemnity of ₹ 75 lakh at 1 lakh per annum (later revised to ₹ 25 lakh)
  • Indian Government would occupy Chumbi Valley for 75 years
  • Tibet would respect Sikkim frontier
  • Trade marts opened at Yatung, Gyantse, Gartok
  • Tibet would not grant concessions for infrastructure to foreign states
  • Britain gained control over Tibet's foreign affairs
• 1907: Anglo-Russian Convention required Chinese mediation for Tibet negotiations

Anglo-Afghan Relations

• 1828: Russian influence in Persia threatened British India
• Auckland's Forward Policy (1836): secure Afghanistan through treaties or annexation
• Dost Mohammed sought Russian help after British rejected demand to recover Peshawar from Sikhs
• 1838: British implemented forward policy through Tripartite Treaty
  • Parties: British, Sikhs, Shah Shuja (deposed Afghan ruler living as British pensioner)
  • Terms: Shah Shuja enthroned with Sikh armed help
  • Company remained in background "jingling the money-bag"
  • Shah Shuja
    • To conduct foreign affairs with Sikh/British advice
    • Surrendered sovereign rights over Sindh Amirs for money
    • Recognized Sikh claims over Afghan territories on Indus right bank

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42)

• Despite changed circumstances (Persia lifted Herat siege, Russia recalled envoy) → British proceeded with forward policy to create barrier against northern aggression
• 1839: British army entered Kabul successfully
• 1840: Most tribes won over by bribes, Dost Mohammed surrendered
• Shah Shuja made Amir but was unacceptable to Afghans
• British withdrawal triggered Afghan rebellion, garrison commander killed
• 1841: British signed treaty with Afghan chiefs to evacuate and restore Dost Mohammed
• 1842: British plan failed, re-occupied Kabul
• British evacuated Kabul after settling with Dost Mohammed, recognizing his rule

Policy of Masterly Inactivity

• John Lawrence (1864-69) implemented masterly inactivity policy
• Non-interference in Afghan affairs following First Afghan War
• Conditions
  • Frontier peace
  • No foreign involvement in civil wars

Proud Reserve Policy

• British#Lord Lytton (1876 - 1880) implemented proud reserve policy
• Scientific frontiers (Strategically defensible border) and defined spheres of influence
• Invaded Afghanistan when Sher Ali accepted Russian but not British envoy

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80)

• Sher Ali balanced Russia-British relations, refused British envoy
• British#Lord Lytton (1876 - 1880) invaded after Russian withdrawal, Sher Ali fled
• Treaty of Gandamak provisions
  • Amir to conduct foreign policy with Government of India's advice
  • Permanent British resident stationed in Kabul
  • India to provide support against foreign aggression and annual subsidy
  • Yakub Khan soon abdicated under popular pressure
  • British recaptured Kabul and Kandahar
• Aftermath
  • Abdur Rehman became new Amir
  • Lytton's plan to dismember Afghanistan abandoned
  • Ripon established Afghanistan as buffer state

British India and NWFP

• 1843-1849: Sindh conquest and Punjab annexation extended British control
• British encountered independent Baluch/Pathan tribes claimed by Afghanistan
• 1891-92: Hunza + Nagar occupation alarmed Abdur Rahman
• 1893: Durand Line established border, increased Amir's subsidy
• Tribal uprisings continued through 1898 despite agreement
• 1899-1905: Curzon replaced troops with tribal levies under British command
• Created NWFP under direct Government of India control
• 1932: NWFP became governor's province
• 1947: Province transferred to Pakistan