7. The Revolt of 1857

• Major uprising against British colonial rule established after 1757 Battle of Plassey
• Affected all sections of society, preceded by sporadic rebellions across India

Simmering Discontent

• Economic causes
  • Destroyed traditional economy fabric
  • Peasantry: Heavy taxation → Borrowing from moneylenders at high rates → Non payment = Eviction
  • Artisans → Lost patronage from native rulers + Handicrafts deliberately crippled through tariff policies
  • 21,000 Awadh taluqdars: Lost estates, later became central revolt centre
• Political causes
  • Aggressive annexation policy, broken pledges
  • Policies like Effective Control, Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse caused suspicion
    • Succession rights denied to Hindu princes
  • Mughal authority diminished after 1856
• Administrative causes
  • Rampant corruption → police, petty officials, lower court
  • Alien governance system, absence of sovereignty
• Socio-religious causes
  • British racial superiority, missionary activities
  • Interference in social practices, religious customs → sati abolition, widow-marriage, women's education
  • Temple taxation
  • Religious Disabilities Act 1856
    • Preserved inheritance rights of converts from Hinduism
    • Perceived as promoting Christian conversion
• External factors: British defeats in Afghan, Punjab, Crimean Wars revealed vulnerability
• Sepoy grievances
  • Service conditions conflicted with religious beliefs
  • Restrictions on caste marks, rumours of proselytising
  • 1856: General Service Enlistment Act required service anywhere
  • Denial of foreign service allowance when serving in Sindh/Punjab
  • Annexation of Awadh, home to many sepoys, inflamed feelings
  • Sepoys experienced discrimination in promotion and privileges
  • Previous revolts in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806), Barrackpore (1825)

Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

The Spark

• Bone dust in flour rumours
• Greased cartridges (beef/pig fat) violated Hindu/Muslim religious taboos

Starts at Meerut

• Timeline: Began Meerut (May 10), spread Punjab to Narmada, Bihar to Rajputana
• Early Signs: 19th Infantry refused Enfield rifles (Feb), Mangal Pande executed (Apr 8)
• Catalyst: 85 cavalry soldiers imprisoned (May 9), freed by comrades (May 10)
• Marched to Delhi

Choice of Bhadur Shah as Symbolic Head

• Aged Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed Emperor of India
• Delhi became revolt center, last Mughal king as leader symbolized India's unity
• Bahadur Shah wrote to chiefs/rulers urging confederation against British
• Revolt spread to Awadh, Rohilkhand, Doab, Bundelkhand, Bihar, East Punjab

Civilians Join

• Peasants, artisans, labourers attacked moneylenders, destroying account books, courts, revenue offices
• Attacked British law courts, revenue offices, police stations
• Scale: 1.5 million deaths (1 million civilians) in Awadh alone

Storm Centres and Leaders of Revolt

• Delhi
  • Bahadur Shah → symbolic figurehead
  • General Bakht Khan → actual commander, led Bareilly revolt
• Kanpur
  • Nana Saheb: Adopted son of last peshwa, banished from Pune
  • Expelled British from Kanpur (June 27), proclaimed himself Peshwa
• Lucknow
  • Begum Hazrat Mahal established administration with son Birjis Qadir as nawab
  • March 1858: Lucknow recovered by British
• Bareilly
  • Khan Bahadur organized 40,000 troops against British
• Bihar
  • Kunwar Singh (Jagdishpur zamindar) joined revolt after losing estates
• Faizabad
  • Maulvi Ahmadullah
• Jhansi
  • Rani Laxmibai fought against Doctrine of Lapse
  • Joined Tantia Tope, marched to Gwalior
  • Scindia sided with English
  • June 1858: Gwalior recaptured by British
• Grassroots Leadership
  • Shah Mal
    • Organized 84 villages → Chaurasi Desh
    • Attacked infrastructure
    • Established justice system
    • Killed July 1857

Suppression of 1857 Revolt

• 1857: British captured Delhi (September 20), Bahadur Shah exiled to Rangoon (died 1862)
• Royal princes executed by Lieutenant Hudson, Mughal dynasty extinguished
• 1857-1859 → Major leaders eliminated
  • Rani of Jhansi → died in battle
  • Tantia Tope →executed
  • Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Maulvi Ahmadullah → dead
  • Nana Saheb → disappeared in Nepal
  • Begum of Awadh → hid in Nepal
• British authority fully restored by 1859 through massive military resources

Reasons for Failure

• Limited geographical spread: Only 25% of India's area/population affected
• Fragmented support: Big zamindars, educated Indians, merchants opposed revolt
• Most Indian rulers remained neutral or pro-British (Scindia, Holkar, Patiala, Kashmir)
• Military disadvantages: Poor weapons, no coordination among rebel leaders
• British superiority: Modern weapons, telegraph communication, exceptional generals
• Ideological weakness: No unified vision, coherent program, or central leadership

Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor

• Complete Hindu-Muslim cooperation across all levels (people, soldiers, leaders)
• Hindu sepoys marched to Delhi, acknowledged Muslim emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Mutual respect for religious sentiments (cow slaughter banned in rebel-controlled areas)
• Integrated leadership structure (Nana Saheb-Azimullah, Laxmibai-Afghan soldiers)
• Evidence that Indian politics were not inherently communal/sectarian before 1858

Nature of the Revolt

• British view: Mere "Sepoy Mutiny" (Seeley)
• Nationalist view: "First War of Independence" (Savarkar)
• Marxist view: "Soldier-peasant democratic combine against imperialism"
• Nehru: "Last-ditch stand of feudalism against commercial capitalism"
• Modern consensus: Neither purely military mutiny nor national independence movement
• S.B. Chaudhuri: "First combined attempt of many classes to challenge foreign power"
• Significance: Despite failure, planted seeds of national consciousness

Consequences of 1857 Revolt

• Administrative Transformation
  • 1858: Better Government of India Act transferred power from Company to Crown
  • Queen Victoria declared sovereign, Governor General became "Viceroy"
  • Secretary of State for India appointed in British cabinet
  • Queen's Proclamation (November 1, 1858) promised religious freedom, equal protection, end to annexations
• Military Reorganization
  • Division and counterpoise policy implemented
  • Indian soldiers reduced, European troops increased
  • Recruitment focused on martial races (Punjab, Nepal, northwestern frontier)
  • Artillery and officer positions reserved for Europeans
  • Army Amalgamation Scheme (1861) transferred European troops to Crown service
• Political Shifts
  • British governance became more autocratic, reform era ended
  • White Mutiny: European soldiers protested transfer to Crown service
  • Indian Civil Service Act (1861) promised equality but preserved British dominance
  • Systematic economic exploitation intensified
  • Racial divide widened, British press portrayed Indians as subhuman
  • Whiteman's burden philosophy justified imperial control

Long-term Impact

• Revealed Company's administrative weaknesses to British
• Exposed genuine grievances of people and sepoys
• Demonstrated military technology gap between Indians and British
• Convinced educated Indians to pursue orderly rather than violent resistance
• Established local resistance traditions useful in later freedom struggle
• Sowed seeds of modern Indian nationalism among educated middle class

8. Socio Religious Reform Movements: General Features

• Factors for Reform
  • 19th century: Modern vision emerged among enlightened Indians
  • Renaissance process created unintended negative by-products
• British Rule Impact
  • Colonial government role differed from previous assimilated invaders
  • 18th century European scientific outlook contrasted with "stagnant" Indian society
• Social Conditions
  • Religious superstition and priestly dominance over scriptural knowledge
  • Women's status: infanticide, child marriage, polygamy, sati for widows
  • Caste system: hierarchical segregation, untouchability, restricted mobility
  • Caste consciousness existed across religious communities
• Reform Movement Development
  • Colonial culture dissemination met with traditional reinvigoration attempts
  • Western exposure created civilization lag awareness
  • Reactions ranged from tradition rejection to reform movements
  • Late 19th century: Nationalism, economic changes, education, and global awareness strengthened reform resolve
  • Socio-cultural regeneration occasioned by colonial presence but independently developed

Social and Ideological Bases

• Social Base
  • 19th century reform led by emerging middle class and educated intellectuals
  • Indian intelligentsia modelled after European middle class but originated from government service, professions, land tenures

Intellectual Criteria

• Rationalism
  • Supremacy of reason and logic over tradition, superstition and dogmatic religious beliefs
  • Applied causality principle and scientific method to evaluate social practices
  • Raja Rammohan Roy: Believed in causality as truth criterion
    • Akshay Kumar Dutt: Declared rationalism our only preceptor, used medical opinion against child marriage
    • Swami Vivekananda: Scientific method of investigation should justify religion
• Religious Universalism
  • All religions have a common truth / spiritual core
  • No religion has monopoly over spiritual wisdom or moral virtue
  • Counters communalism
• Humanism
  • High value on human rights, dignity and capacities
  • Commitment to social justice, equality and promotion of human welfare

Reform Approach

• Rational evaluation of traditions through social utility lens
• Rejected religious infallibility while seeking reconciliation with modernity
  • Brahmo Samaj: Rejected Vedas' infallibility
  • Aligarh Movement: Reconciled Islamic teachings with modernity
• Focused on worldly existence rather than salvation
• Attacked priestly domination and religious orthodoxy
• Agenda of social reform movements
  • Developed alternative cultural-ideological systems while regenerating traditional institutions
  • Addressed language, education, religion, arts, medicine, technology, and lifestyle

Two Streams

• Reformist: Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh Movement
• Revivalist: Arya Samaj, Deoband movement
• Distinguished by reliance on tradition versus reason/conscience

Direction of Social Reform

• Humanistic equality ideals drove middle class reforms
• Initially religious-linked, later secular approach
• Early reforms upper-class focused, later reached lower strata
• Key organizations → Social Conference, Servants of India Society, Christian missionaries
• Notable reformers → Jyotiba Phule, Ambedkar, D.K. Karve, E.V. Ramaswami Naicker
• 20th century: national movement led social reform
• Used vernacular media → novels, drama, press, cinema
• Dual focus
  • Women's status,
  • Untouchability elimination

Women's Reform

• Women
  • Low status
  • No individual identity
  • Suppressed → Purdah, Child marriage, Widow restrictions, Sati
• Reformers linked women's status improvement to national progress
• Reformers advocated equality, opposed degrading customs, sought educational/legal reforms

Key Reforms

• 1829
  • Sati abolished under British#Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
  • Rammohan Roy's efforts
  • Only applicable to Bengal; 1830 → Extended to Madras + Bombay
• 1856
  • Widow remarriage legalised
  • Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act
  • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's advocacy
• 1870
  • Female infanticide prevention act mandated birth registration
  • Regulations in 1795 + 1804 → Declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder
• 1891
  • Age of Consent Act 1891 prohibited marriage below 12
  • B.M. Malabari's efforts
• 1929
  • Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (Sarda Act) set marriage ages (14/18), raised to 18/21 in 1978

Education Initiatives

• 1819: Christian missionaries established Calcutta Female Juvenile Society
• 1849: J.E.D. Bethune founded first women's education council
• Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar established 35 girls' schools in Bengal
• Maharashtra pioneers → Jagannath Shankarsheth, Bhau Daji established schools
• Jyotirao Phule and wife Savitribai: opened first girls' school in Pune (1848), night schools for working women
• 1863: Alexandra School for Parsi girls opened
• 1887: Cornelia Sorabji became first woman Bombay University graduate
• 1914: Women's Medical Service established → trained nurses and midwive
• 1916
  • India's First Women's University (SNDT Women's University) founded by D.K. Karve
  • Lady Hardinge Medical College opened in Delhi
• Women participated in swadeshi, anti-partition, Home Rule movements
• After 1918: Women faced lathis/bullets during political processions

Women's Organisations

• 1910: Sarla Devi Chaudhurani established Bharat Stree Mahamandal, first major women's organisation by a woman
• Objectives: women's education, abolish purdah, improve socio-economic status
• 1904: Ramabai Ranade founded Ladies Social Conference in Bombay
• Pandita Ramabai created Arya Mahila Samaj, advocated educational reforms
• Medical education for women began at Lady Dufferin College
• 1925: National Council of Women formed with Mehribai Tata's leadership
• 1927: Margaret Cousins founded AIWC with egalitarian approach
• AIWC worked for legislative reforms including Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Marriage Acts (1954-56), Maternity Benefits Act (1961)
• Key leaders
  • Sarojini Naidu → President of INC (1925); Governor of United Provinces (1947-1949)
  • Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya
  • Cornelia Sorabji → India's first lady barrister

Struggle Against Caste Based Exploitation

• Caste System Evolution and Impact
  • Four-fold Hindu society subdivided into sub-castes through racial mixing, geographical expansion
  • Chaturvarnashrama determined education, property, profession, social status from birth
  • Untouchables faced inhuman disabilities based on birth inequality
• Mitigating Factors
  • British rule undermined caste through administrative measures, property reforms (creation of private property, free sale of land)
  • Modern commerce created economic alternatives
  • British introduced legal equality, removed judicial functions of caste panchayats
• Reform Movements and Leaders
  • Mid-19th century: Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj educated untouchables
  • Reformers criticized hereditary caste, karma justifications
  • National movement embraced equality principles
  • 1920s: E.V. Ramaswamy led Self-Respect Movement in South India
  • Gandhi founded All India Harijan Sangh (1932), advocated humanistic approach
  • Jyotiba Phule prioritised lower caste education, especially for girls
  • Gopal Baba Walangkar
    • Published Vital Vidhwansak (Destroyer of Brahmanical / Ceremonial Pollution)
    • Founded Anarya Dosh Parihar Mandali (Society for the removal of evils among the Non Aryans)
    • Proposed Aryan invasion theory (caste was created by Aryans to subjugate and control indigenous people)
  • Kisan Faguji Bansod
    • Opened his press for journals aimed at awakening Dalits
  • Ambedkar
    • 1920: Published Mooknayak (Leader of the VoiceLess)
    • 1924: Formed Bahushkrit Hitakarni Sabha
    • 1927: Published Bahishkrit Bharat
    • 1927: Led Mahad Satyagraha, 2,500 untouchables drank from Chawdar tank
    • 1942: Organized All India Scheduled Castes Federation
• Constitutional Reforms
  • Constitution abolished untouchability, established equality
  • Prohibited access restrictions to public facilities
  • Established social justice principles

9. A General Survey of Socio Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders

Socio Cultural Reform and their Leaders

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

• 1772 - 1833
• Father of Indian Renaissance
• Advocated scientific approach, monotheism, social equality
• 1809: Translated Vedas/Upanishads, wrote Gift to Monotheists
• 1820: Wrote Precepts of Jesus → Separated moral and philosophical message of New Testament
• 1814: Founded Atmiya Sabha

Brahmo Samaj

• 1828: Founded Brahmo Samaj
  • Institutionalised reform ideas
  • Worship forms: Prayers, Meditation, Upanishad readings
  • Agenda: purify Hinduism, preach monotheism based on Vedas/Upanishads
  • Principles
    • Rejected polytheism, divine incarnations, scriptural authority over reason
    • Prohibited idols, graven images, statues, sculptures in Samaj buildings
  • No position on karma/transmigration, criticized caste system

Roy's Social Reforms

• 1818: Led anti-sati campaign → 1829 Government Regulation criminalising practice
• Advocated women's rights, opposed polygamy, demanded inheritance rights for women
• Established educational institutions combining Indian learning with Western philosophy
• Developed Bengali language through grammar compilation, modern prose style

Political Contributions

• Pioneered Indian journalism in multiple languages, supported press freedom
• Advocated taxation limits, reduced export duties, judicial equality, jury trials
• Demanded Indianisation of services, executive/judiciary separation
• Internationalist vision promoting universal liberty, equality, justice principles

Brahmo Samaj Leadership Evolution

• 1839: Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) founded Tattvabodhini Sabha + Tattvabodhini Patrika
• 1842: Debendranath Tagore joined Brahmo Samaj, formalized association between two sabhas
• Agenda of Samaj: Opposed Christian missionaries, supported widow remarriage, women's education, polygamy abolition, temperance
• 1858: Prominent Men#Keshab Chandra Sen became acharya, expanded movement beyond Bengal
• 1865: Sen dismissed over inter-caste marriage support, strong views against caste system, inclusion of teachings from all religions
• 1866: Split into Adi Brahmo Samaj (Tagore's) and Brahmo Samaj of India (Sen's)
• 1878: Sen's daughter's marriage to Cooch-Behar Maharaja → Sadharan Brahmo Samaj formed by dissidents
• Reform Principles Across Movements
  • Opposed religious dogma, superstitions, idol worship, caste system
  • Advocated women's rights, widow remarriage, education reform
  • Discouraged child marriage, polygamy, untouchability
  • Combined Indian learning with Western thought

Related Reform Movements

• Prarthana Samaj (1867)
  • Founded in Bombay with Keshab Chandra Sen's help
  • Preceded by Paramahansa Sabha, secret society spreading liberal ideas
  • Mahadev Govind Ranade joined in 1870, made it all-India character
  • Other leaders: R.G. Bhandarkar, M.G. Chandavarkar, Dhondo Keshav Karve, Vishnu Shastri
  • Four-point agenda: caste system abolition, women's education, widow remarriage, raising marriage age (social reform over religious change)
  • Established Widow Remarriage Movement and Widows' Home Association
• Young Bengal Movement (1820s-30s)
  • Radical intellectual trend among Bengal youth (1820s-1830s)
  • Led by Henry Vivian Derozio, Hindu College teacher, considered first nationalist poet of modern India
  • Inspired by French Revolution principles
  • Encouraged questioning authority, free thinking, liberty, equality
• Both movements carried forward Roy's tradition but had limited impact due to disconnection from masses

Limitations

• Brahmo Samaj influence largely restricted to Calcutta and educated elite
• Reform movements lacked connection with masses and peasantry
• Social conditions not ready for radical ideas
• Despite limitations, established foundation for modern Indian social reform

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

• 1830: Became Sanskrit College principal, opened education to non-brahmins
• Blended Indian-Western thought, created new Bengali primer and prose style
• Secured widow remarriage legalization, opposed child marriage
• Established 35 girls' schools, pioneered women's higher education
• Secretary of Bethune School (1849)

Balshastri Jambhekar

• 1832: Started newspaper Darpan; promote social reforms like widow remarriage via Darpan; considered father of Marathi journalism;
• 1840: Started Digdarshan, publishing scientific articles and history
• Attacked brahminical orthodoxy, promoted scientific approach
• Founded Bombay Native Library, Native Improvement Society
• First Hindi professor at Elphinston College

Paramahansa Mandali

• 1849: Secret Maharashtra society reforming Hindu religion
• Founders: Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram
• Promoted monotheism, rationality, breaking caste rules
• Advocated widow remarriage, women's education
• Established branches throughout Maharashtra

Jyotirao Phule (1827-90)

• Belonged to Mali (gardener) community
• Caste reformer against brahminical supremacy
• 1873: Founded Satyashodhak Samaj with backward class leadership
• Works → Gulamgiri and Sarvajanik Satyadharma inspired common masses
• Promoted education → social transformation, coined term dalit
• Created priest-free marriage ceremonies, opposed varna system
• Received Mahatma title (1888)

Savitribai Phule (1831-97)

• First woman teacher despite severe social opposition
• Established girls' schools with progressive curriculum
• Founded organizations for women's rights, widow welfare
• Created Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (1863): Pregnant unwed and widow mother could have safe deliveries; preventing infanticide
• Led Satya Shodhak Samaj after husband's death
• Died serving plague patients, honoured by Pune University renaming

Gopal Baba Walangkar (1840-1900)

• Dalit movement pioneer, army veteran until 1886
• & First intellectual Dalit rebel, focused on changing attitudes
• Subscribed to Aryan invasion theory, caste system subjugated indigenous people
• Founded Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali (Society for the Removal of Evils Among the Non Aryans)
• Published journals
  • 1888: Vital Vidhvansak (Destroyer of Brahmanical or Ceremonial Pollution): Gopal Baba Walangkar #Ind_Publications
  • 1889: Vital Vidnvansan (Annihilation of Ceremonial Pollution): Gopal Baba Walangkar #Ind_Publications
  • 1894: Hindu Dharma Darpan: Gopal Baba Walangkar #Ind_Publications
• Contributions: Marathi journals Sudharark and Deenbandhu

Kisan Faguji Bansod (1879-1946)

• Established Chokhamela girls' school, press
• 1910: Established his own press and published
  • Nirashrit Hind Nagarik
  • Vital Vidhvanask
  • Majur Patrika
• 1920: Secretary of All India Depressed Classes Conference
• Advocated Hindu reforms for Dalit upliftment

Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873-1944)

• 1905: Established night school for untouchables
• 1906: Founded Depressed Classes Mission
• Advocated united front between depressed classes and caste Hindus
• 1919: Testified before Southborough Franchise Committee
• Imprisoned during Civil Disobedience Movement
• Author of Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna

Gopalhari Deshmukh (1823-92)

• Judge under British raj, wrote for Prabhakar under pen name Lokahitawadi
• Attacked orthodoxy, supported religious and social equality
• Started weekly: Hitechhu
• Founded periodicals: Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash, Lokahitawadi

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-95)

• Educational and social reformer from Maharashtra
• Advocated human reason, criticized blind dependence on tradition
• Co-founded New English School, Deccan Education Society, Fergusson College
• First editor of Kesari (journal started by Lokmanya Tilak)
• Later started periodical Sudharak against untouchability #Ind_Publications

Servants of India Society (1905)

• Founded by Gokhale with Ranade's help to train national missionaries, promote Indian interests, remained politically neutral
• 1911: Published Hitavada to project the views of society #Ind_Publications

Social Service League

• Narayan Malhar Joshi's Bombay organization providing education, libraries, legal aid, facilities for poor
• 1920: Joshi founded All India Trade Union Congress

Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda

• Ramakrishna Movement
  • Based on teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836-86)
  • Two objectives
    • Create band of monks dedicated to renunciation → Ramakrishna founded Ramakrishna Math
    • Spread message → Taken up by Swami Vivekananda
• Vivekananda (1862-1902)
  • 1897: Founded Ramakrishna Mission
  • Advocated neo-Hinduism blending Eastern spirituality with Western materialism
  • Advocated doctrine of service → service of all beings
  • Key Contributions
    • 1893: Gained international recognition at Chicago Parliament of Religions → Promoted practical Vedanta combining service (karma) and knowledge (jnana)
• Institutional Impact
  • Mission established schools/hospitals worldwide
  • Provides disaster relief
  • Remains non-proselytising

Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj

• Reaction to Western influences, founded 1875 in Bombay, headquartered in Lahore
• Advocated classless society, united India, freedom from foreign rule
• Back to the Vedas emphasized learning, not revival of Vedic times
• Rejected maya concept, promoted occupation-based not birth-based social system
• Attacked caste rigidity, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism
• Fixed marriage ages: 25 for boys, 16 for girls

Guiding Principles of Arya Samaj

• God as primary source of truth, Vedas as books of knowledge
• Emphasis on dharma, world's well-being, treating all with love
• Knowledge promotion, social welfare above individual well-being
• Social ideals: brotherhood, equality of sexes, justice, intercaste marriages

Arya Samaj Activities

• 1886: Dayananda Anglo-Vedic College (DAV) established
• 1893: College Party (Govt curriculum + English education + Diet Personal) vs Mahatma Party (Sanskrit / Vedic philosophies + Vegetarianism) split over curriculum → Split
• College Party → Control over DAV school + college
  Mahatma Party → Local Arya Samaj branches
• 1896: Founded Kanya Mahavidyalaya at Jalandhar → sponsored education for widows
• 1902: Gurukul established at Kangri, focused on Vedic literature with modern sciences
• Shuddhi movement to reconvert Hindus who converted to Christianity/Islam
• Efforts to uplift untouchables and non-caste Hindus

Seva Sadan (1908)

• Behramji Malabari founded organization opposing child marriage, supporting widow remarriage
• Led to Age of Consent Act
• Provided welfare for exploited women
• Indian Spectator → Acquired and edited by Behramji Malabari

Dev Samaj (1887)

• Shiv Narayan Agnihotri established reform society emphasizing soul's eternity, guru supremacy, ethical living; opposed child marriage
• Teachings compiled in book → Deva Shastra

Dharma Sabha (1830)

• Radhakant Deb's orthodox society preserved status quo, opposed sati abolition
• Supported Western education

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala (1902)

• Orthodox Hindu organization formed by merging Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), Dharma Maha Parishad (South India), Dharma Mahamandala (Bengal)
• Defended against reformist movements
• Prominent figure → Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya

Radhaswami Movement (1861)

• Tulsi Ram founded movement believing in supreme being, guru supremacy, simple life
• Considered all religions equal

SNDP Movement

• Sri Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP)
• Narayana Guru led Ezhava upliftment in Kerala
• 1888: Installed Shivalinga
• Advocated education, temple entry, government jobs; opposed caste divisions
• Kumaran Asan (famous poet) joined as disciple
• 1903: Registered organization

Vokkaliga Sangha (1905)

• Anti-brahmin movement in Mysore

Justice Movement

• Led by Mudaliar, Nair, Tyagaraja in Madras Presidency
• 1917: Formed Madras Presidency Association
• Demanded non-brahmin representation

Self-Respect Movement

• E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (mid-1920s) rejected brahminical religion
• Formalized non-brahmin weddings

Temple Entry Movement

• Previous work by reformers → Sree Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Azan
• TK Madhavan
  • Championed temple access for untouchables
  • Deshabhimani: T.K. Madhavan #Ind_Publications
• 1924: Vaikom Satyagraha led by K.P. Kesava in Travancore; supported by Gandhi
• 1931: Temple entry movements organized during Civil Disobedience suspension; Subramaniyam Tirumambu (Singing Sword of Kerala) led 16 volunteers to Guruvayur
• 1936: Travancore Maharaja opened government temples to all Hindus
• 1938: C. Rajagopalachari in Madras → Ensured temple entry rights of Dalits

Indian Social Conference (1887)

• Founded by MG Ranade and Raghunath Rao
• Advocated inter-caste marriages
• Opposed child marriage and polygamy
• Initiated Pledge Movement to encourage individuals to stand against child marriage

Islamic Reform Movements

• Wahabi / Walliullah
  • Revivalist movement seeking pure Islam, initially anti-Sikh then anti-British
  • Considered India Dar-ul-Harb (Land of Kafirs) → to be converted to Dar-ul-Islam (Land of Islam)
• Titu Mir
  • Adopted Wahabism, advocated Sharia
  • Organized Bengali Muslim peasants against Hindu landlords and British, killed 1831
• Faraizi
  • Haji Shariatullah (1819) opposed un-Islamic practices
  • Son Dudu Mian established parallel governance opposing Hindu landlords
• Ahmadiyya
  • Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1889) promoted liberal Islam, universal religion principles, opposed Jihad
• Aligarh
  • Syed Ahmed Khan established Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (1875) (later Aligarh Muslim University)
  • Advocated Western education with Islamic values, opposed purdah/polygamy and piri/muridi, promoted Hindu-Muslim unity
• Deoband School (1866)
  • Orthodox Muslim revivalist movement promoting Quran teachings and jihad spirit against foreign rulers
  • Founded by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi in Saharanpur for Islamic moral regeneration
  • Opposed Syed Ahmed Khan, welcomed Congress formation
  • Mahmud-ul-Hasan synthesised Islamic principles with nationalist aspirations
  • Shibli Numani integrated Western education with Islamic learning

Parsi Reform (1851)

• Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (also called Parsi Reform Society) established by English-educated Parsis for social regeneration (including Prominent Men#Dadabhai Naroji)

• Reformed rituals, removed purdah, raised marriage age, expanded education

• Rast Goftar (Truth Teller): Spread the message of reform #Ind_Publications

• Parsis became most westernised Indian community

Sikh Reform

• 1873: Singh Sabha Movement established for modern education and countering conversions
• Created Khalsa schools network throughout Punjab
• Akali Movement liberated gurudwaras from corrupt mahants
• 1922: Sikh Gurudwaras Act transferred temple control to SGPC

Theosophical Society (1875)

• Founded by Blavatsky and Olcott, headquarters moved to Adyar (1882)
• Believed in soul-God connection through contemplation, accepted Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and karma
• Aimed at universal brotherhood, investigating unexplained natural laws
• Annie Besant established Central Hindu College (1898), later formed nucleus of BHU (1916)
• Limited impact on average Indians despite elite appeal

Significance of Reform Movements

• Positive Contributions
  • Liberated individuals from religious conformity and priestly exploitation
  • Vernacular translations → personal religious experience and scriptural interpretation
  • Emphasized rational thinking and intellectual inquiry
  • Provided cultural anchors for emerging middle classes amid colonial disorientation
  • Created modernization framework integrating Western ideas with Indian traditions
  • Strengthened national consciousness against colonial cultural hegemony
  • Challenged traditional customs while preserving core cultural identity
  • Promoted education reforms, especially for women and marginalized groups
• Limitations and Drawbacks
  • Restricted primarily to urban educated elites, neglecting rural masses and poor
  • Overemphasized religious aspects while undervaluing art, science, technology
  • Created religious compartmentalization, weakening composite cultural development
  • Selective glorification of past → separate identity consciousness for different groups
  • Encouraged mysticism alongside rationalism, limiting full scientific outlook
  • High-caste reformers often ignored exploitation of lower castes
  • Uncritical praise of ancient periods alienated groups historically marginalized
  • Contributed to communal consciousness alongside national awakening

10. Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India

Factors in the Growth of Nationalism

Indian Nationalism Origins

• Dual origin: colonial policies and reaction to colonialism
• French Revolution introduced nationalism and self-determination concepts
• Indian Renaissance movement fostered cultural identity
• British modernization created institutional framework
• Imperial policies provoked organized resistance

Unification Impact

• Unification acted as nationalist Foundation
• Administrative consolidation → created pan-Indian political consciousness
• Transportation networks → connected regional economies and leaders
• Unified systems established governance framework that nationalists later utilized

Western Education and Thought

• Led to Political Awakening
• Liberal European thought introduced democratic concepts
• English language bridged regional divides
• Educated professionals witnessed rights disparities (democracy in Britain vs denial of basic rights in India) firsthand
• Middle-class intelligentsia provided movement leadership

Information Channels

• 1877: 169 vernacular newspapers with 1,00,000 circulation
• Press simultaneously criticized policies and promoted unity
• Disseminated democratic, civil rights, self-governance concepts
• Facilitated inter-regional political exchange

Cultural Renaissance

• Historical research revealed India's advanced past
• Indo-Aryan theory (connected Indians to European ethnic origins) countered colonial inferiority narratives
• Socio-religious reforms united diverse communities

Middle-Class Leadership

• British economic innovations created urban educated class
• This dynamic minority provided nationalist leadership (including INC)

Global Movement Influence

• Liberation movements in South America, Greece, Italy, Ireland provided models

Racial Policies Backlash

• British racial discrimination policies heightened resistance

• 1876: Reduction of age for ICS from 21 years to 19 year

• 1878: Arms Act

  • Manufacture and sale of arms was regulated
  • No Indian could manufacture, sell or carry a weapon without a license

• 1883: Ilbert Bill controversy

  • Bill proposed allowing Indian judges to try cases involving European British subjects in criminal courts
  • Europeans opposed the bill

• Colonial injustice catalysed nationalist organization techniques

Pre-Congress Political Evolution in India

• Early 19th century: Wealthy aristocratic groups formed local/regional associations
• Primarily demanded administrative reforms, Indian representation, education expansion
• Late 19th century: Educated middle class (lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers) took leadership

Political Associations in Bengal (1836-1876)

• 1836: Bangabhasha Prakashika Sabha formed by Raja Rammohan Roy's associates

• 1838: Landholders' Society established to protect zamindari interests, began organized political activity

• 1843: Bengal British India Society collected information on Indian conditions (Current Affairs: Derozio’s Radical Young Bengal Movement#Political Initiatives And Reformist Actions)

• 1851: Both (Chapter 7 - 11#^Landholders-Society + Chapter 7 - 11#^Bengal-British-India-Society) merged into British Indian Association, petitioned for constitutional reforms

  • Founder: Radhakanta Deb, First General Secretary: Prominent Men#Debendranath Tagore
  • Rival of Chapter 7 - 11#^Indian-Association-Of-Calcutta (Source: Wikipedia)
  • Sent petition to British Parliament for following demand
    • Popular legislature establishment
    • Executive-judicial function separation
    • Higher officer salary reductions
    • Salt, Abkari, Stamp duties abolished

• 1866: East India Association founded in London by Dadabhai Naoroji

  • Present Indian viewpoint in front of British public
  • Generate support for Indian cause among British public

• 1875: Indian League started by Sisir Kumar Ghosh to promote nationalism

• 1876: Indian Association of Calcutta established by Prominent Men#Surendranath Banerjee and Prominent Men#Anand Mohan Bose

  • Also called Indian National Association
  • & Most significant pre-Congress organization
  • Created public opinion on political issues, unified Indians, protested civil service age restrictions
  • 1883: Hosted first all-India conference in Calcutta (INC precursor)
  • 1886: Merged with Indian National Congress
  • Member: Prominent Men#Dadabhai Naroji

Regional Expansion

• 1867: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade / Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi (Source: Wikipedia)

  • 🎯: Establish arbitration courts (nyayan sabha) for private settlement of civil disputes, organised famine relief in the Deccan region

• 1884: Madras Mahajan Sabha formed by Viraraghavachariar, B Aiyer, and P Ananda Charlu. 🎯: National liberation, tax reduction, spending cuts, fundamental rights

• 1885: Bombay Presidency Association established by Prominent Men#Badruddin Tyabji, Prominent Men#Pherozeshah Mehta, and K.T. Telang

Pre-Congress Campaigns

• 1875: Opposition to cotton import duties
• 1878 - 1879: Government service Indianisation
• 1878: Protests against Afghan policy, Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act
• Volunteer corps participation rights
• Opposition to plantation labor exploitation
• Support for Ilbert Bill
• All-India political fund and voting rights
• Civil service examination reform and age limit protests

11. Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase

Foundation of INC

• 1885: First session in Bombay, organized by A.O. Hume with 72 delegates
• Preceded by Indian National Conference sessions (1883, 1885)
• Annual December meetings in rotating locations
• Early presidents: Dadabhai Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee
• 1890: Kadambini Ganguly addressed Congress, advocating women's rights

The president of the Congress session was chosen from a region other than the one hosting the meeting

Competing Theories

• Safety valve theory: Hume created Congress to prevent uprising
• Nationalist view: Congress represented politically conscious Indians
• Bipan Chandra: Hume served as "lightning conductor" for nationalist forces

Core Objectives

• Establish democratic nationalist movement
• Political education and headquarters development
• National unity across religious/regional divides
• Present demands to government
• Promote Indian nationhood

Moderate Era (1885-1905)

• Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjee
• Strategy: Constitutional agitation within legal boundaries
• Two-pronged approach
  • Build public opinion + Unite people on common political questions
  • Persuade British to introduce reforms in India
• 1889: London branch of INC established

Contributions of Moderates

Economic Critique

• Developed "drain theory" of colonial exploitation
• Opposed transformation of self-sufficient economy into colonial supplier
• Specific demands: Tax reductions, labor reforms, military spending cuts
• Advocated indigenous industrial development and capital formation

Constitutional Engagement

• 1861-1892: Limited Indian representation in Imperial Legislative Council. (Indian were allowed in Legislative Council in 1861 → Different Acts by the British#^Indians-Legislative-Council-1861)
• Different Acts by the British#Indian Council Act 1892: Increased membership but maintained official majority
• Councils transformed into grievance forums despite British intentions
• 1904-1906: Demands evolved to self-government

Administrative Reform Campaign

• & Indianisation of government services
  • Economic grounds (British civil servants received high emoluments)
  • Political grounds (Salaries/pensions remitted to England drained Indian revenue)
  • Moral grounds (Indians discriminated against for positions of trust)
• Judicial-executive separation
• Bureaucracy reform
• Foreign policy criticism (Burma annexation, attack on Afghanistan)
• Welfare expenditure increase
• Improved labor treatment abroad

Early Nationalists (1858-1905)

• Awakened national sentiment despite limited mass mobilization
• Created common program against colonial rule, fostered national identity
• Exposed colonial exploitation, established India-first principle
• Trained political workers, popularized modern ideas
• Failed to broaden democratic base or demands

Mass Participation Limitations

• Narrow social base due to distrust of heterogeneous population
• Failed to recognize freedom struggle could unite diverse elements
• Later nationalists differed by advocating mass participation

British Government Response

• Initially hostile despite moderate Congress methods
• Post-1887: labeled nationalists seditious
• Employed divide-and-rule, carrot and stick tactics
• Encouraged religious divisions, reactionary elements (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Raja Shiv Prasad Singh)
• Failed to suppress rising nationalism